Signals
• Generally, the information is not in a form that
can be transmitted over a Link
• The binary digits must be converted into a
form that Transmission Medium can accept
• The data stream of 1s and 0s must be turned
into Signals
Analog
• ANALOG
– Refers to something that is Continuous
• CONTINUOUS
– A set of specific points of data and all
possible points between them
Digital
• DIGITAL
– Refers to something that is Discrete
• DISCRETE
– A set of specific points of data with no points
in between
Analog and Digital Data
• Analog Data
– Human Voice
• Digital Data
– Data stored in the memory of a
computer
Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Signals
(Analog or Digital)
Periodic Aperiodic
Periodic Signals
A signal is called Periodic if it completes a
pattern within a measurable time frame
called a Period and then repeats that
pattern over identical subsequent
Periods
Periodic Signal Example
Aperiodic Signals
An Aperiodic or Non-Periodic signal is the
one that changes constantly without
exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats
over time
Aperiodic Signals
Analog Signals
• Analog signals can be classified into:
– Simple Analog Signal (Sine wave)
– Composite Analog Signal
Simple Analog Signal
(Sine Wave)
Simple Analog Signal
(Sine Wave)
• Sine waves can be fully described:
– Amplitude
– Period / Frequency
– Phase
Amplitude
Period and Frequency
T= 1 / f OR f=1 / T
Units of Period & Frequency
Seconds____Hertz
Milliseconds____Kilohertz
Microseconds____Megahertz
Nanoseconds____Gigahertz
Picoseconds____Terahertz
Period and Frequency
1 1
T or f
f T
Example
• A Sine wave has a frequency of 6 Hz.
What is its period?
• Solution
1 1
T 0.17 sec
f 6
Example
• A Sine wave completes one cycle in 4
seconds. What is its frequency?
• Solution:
1 1
f 0.25 Hz
T 4
Another Way to Look at Frequency
• Measurement of the rate of change
• How fast the wave moves from its
lowest to its highest point
• Changes in Short Time: High Frequency
Two Frequency Extremes
• No change at all
– Zero frequency
• Instantaneous changes
– Infinite frequency
Phase
• Phase describes the position of the
waveform relative to time zero
• Phase describes the amount of
backward or forward shift of the
waveform
• Measured in Degrees or Radians
Phase
Control of Signals
• Signal can be controlled by three
attributes:
– Amplitude
– Frequency
– Phase
Control of Signals- Amplitude
Control of Signals- Frequency
Control of Signals- Phase
Time and Frequency Domain
Time and Frequency Domain Example
Bit Interval and Bit Rate
• Bit Interval (seconds)
– Time required to send one single bit
• Bit Rate (bps)
– Number of bits sent per second
Bit Interval and Bit Rate
Introduction
• Information must be transformed into
signals before it can be transformed
across the communication media
• How this information is transformed
depends upon its original format and on
the format of the communication
hardware
Conversion Methods
Digital-to-Digital Conversion
• Digital-to-Digital conversion/encoding is the
representation of digital information by digital
signal
• For Example:
– When you transmit data from Computer to the
Printer, both original and transmitted data
have to be digital
Digital-to-Digital Conversion
Types of Digital-to-Digital Encoding
Digital/Digital Encoding
Unipolar Polar Bipolar
Unipolar Encoding
• Simple and Primitive
• Almost Obsolete Today
• Study provides introduction to concepts
and problems involved with more
complex encoding systems
Unipolar Encoding
Pros and Cons of Unipolar Encoding
• PROS
– Straight Forward and Simple
– Inexpensive to Implement
• CONS
– DC Component
– Synchronization
Non Return to Zero (NRZ)
• The level of signal is either positive or
negative
NRZ
NRZ-L NRZ-I
Non Return to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
Non Return to Zero-Invert (NRZ-I)
Manchester
Differential Manchester
Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)