Processes
Processes
Process Concept
Process Scheduling
Operations on Processes
Cooperating Processes
Inter process Communication
Communication in Client-Server Systems
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Process Concept
Process – a program in execution; process execution must progress in
sequential fashion
“Program” is a passive entity which resides in secondary memory, “process” is
Active entity which resides in Primary memory.
A process includes:
program counter
stack
data section
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Process in Memory
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Process State
As a process executes, it changes state
new: The process is being created
running: Instructions are being executed
waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur
ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor
terminated: The process has finished execution
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Diagram of Process State
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Process Control Block (PCB)
Information associated with each process
Process state
Program counter
CPU registers
CPU scheduling information
Memory-management information
Accounting information
I/O status information
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Process Control Block (PCB)
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CPU Switch From Process to Process
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Process Scheduling Queues
Job queue – set of all processes in the system
Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and
waiting to execute
Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O device
Processes migrate among the various queues
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Representation of Process Scheduling
Queuing Diagram
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Schedulers
Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes
should be brought into the ready queue
Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process
should be executed next and allocates CPU
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Addition of Medium Term Scheduling
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Schedulers (Cont.)
Short-term scheduler is invoked very frequently (milliseconds)
(must be fast)
Long-term scheduler is invoked very infrequently (seconds,
minutes) (may be slow)
The long-term scheduler controls the degree of
multiprogramming
Processes can be described as either:
I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than
computations, many short CPU bursts
CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations;
few very long CPU bursts
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Context Switch
When CPU switches to another process, the system must save the
state of the old process and load the saved state for the new
process
Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful work
while switching
Time dependent on hardware support
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Operations on Processes
A process may create several new processes, via a create-process
system call, during its course of execution.
The creating process is called the parent process, and the new
processes that are being created are called the child process.
Parent process create child processes, which, in turn create other
processes, forming a tree of processes
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Operations on Processes
Takes care of all user
created processes
Responsible for
Processes taking care of
Networking Functions
memory and File
management
X-window for login
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Process Creation
Resource sharing
Parent and children share all resources
Children share subset of parent’s resources
Parent and child share no resources
Execution
Parent and children execute concurrently
Parent waits until children terminate
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Process Creation
Address space
Child duplicate of parent (Same program and data
as parent)
Child has a program loaded into it
UNIX examples
fork system call creates new process
exec system call used after a fork to replace the
process’ memory space with a new program
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Process Creation
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
C Program Forking Separate Process
int main()
{
pid_t pid;
/* fork another process */
pid = fork();
if (pid < 0) { /* error occurred */
fprintf(stderr, "Fork Failed");
exit(-1);
}
else if (pid == 0) { /* child process */
execlp("/bin/ls", "ls", NULL);
}
else { /* parent process */
/* parent will wait for the child to
complete */
wait (NULL);
printf ("Child Complete");
exit(0);
}
}
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Process Termination
A process terminates when it executes the last statement and asks the operating
system to delete it (exit), only by the parent process
Output data from child to parent (via wait)
Process resources are de-allocated by operating system(Physical/Virtual, Open
files and I/O buffers)
Parent may terminate execution of children processes (abort)
Child has exceeded allocated resources (Parent should have a mechanism to
inspect the state of the child)
Task assigned to child is no longer required
If parent is exiting
Some operating system do not allow child to continue if its parent terminates
– All children terminated - cascading termination
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Inter-process Communication
Processes executing concurrently may be either Independent or
Cooperating processes.
Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution of
another process
Cooperating process can affect or be affected by the execution of
another process (Any process that shares data with another process)
Advantages of process cooperation
Information sharing
Computation speed-up
Modularity
Convenience
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Inter-process Communication (IPC)
Cooperating processes require an IPC mechanism that will allow them to
exchange data and information among the processes.
There are 2 fundamental models of IPC
Shared Memory
Message Passing
In Shared Memory model, a region of memory that is shared by
cooperating process is established. Processes can then exchange
information's by reading and writing data to the shared region.
In message passing model, communication takes place by means of
messages exchanged between the cooperating processes.
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Communications Models
(Message Passing) (Shared Memory)
Process Level User Thread Level
Parallelism(Distributed) Parallelism – Tightly
Loosely coupled system coupled system
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Share Memory Model
IPC using shared memory requires communicating processes to establish a region of
shared region.
Typically, a shared region resides in the address space of the process creating the
shared-memory segment.
The other processes that wish to communicate using this shared-memory segment must
attach it to their address space.
Usually the OS tries to prevent one process from accessing the memory of another
process.
Shared memory requires that two or more processes agrees to remove this restriction.
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Producer-Consumer Problem
A producer process produces information that is consumed by
the consumer process
Solution to producer consumer problem is to use share memory
concept
To allow producer and consumer process run concurrently, we
must have a buffer of items that can be filled by the producer
and emptied by the consumer
This buffer will reside in a region of memory that is shared
between Producer and Consumer.
A Producer can produce one item while the consumer
consumes another Item
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Producer-Consumer Problem
The Producer and Consumer must be synchronized, so that the
consumer does not try to consume an item that is not yet been
produced.
Uses buffer
Bounded
Un-Bounded
For example:
Client – Server Model
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Producer-Consumer Problem
Paradigm for cooperating processes, producer process
produces information that is consumed by a consumer
process
unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on the size of
the buffer
bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed buffer size
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Bounded-Buffer – Shared-Memory Solution
Shared data
#define BUFFER_SIZE 10
typedef struct {
...
} item;
item buffer[BUFFER_SIZE];
int in = 0;
int out = 0;
Solution is correct, but can only use BUFFER_SIZE-1 elements
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Bounded-Buffer – Insert() Method
while (true)
{
/* Produce an item */
while (((in + 1) % BUFFER SIZE count) == out)
; /* do nothing -- no free buffers */
buffer[in] = item;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER SIZE;
}
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Bounded Buffer – Remove() Method
while (true)
{
while (in == out)
; // do nothing -- nothing to consume
// remove an item from the buffer
item = buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER SIZE;
return item;
}
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Message Passing Model
Mechanism for processes to communicate and to synchronize their
actions with each other without resorting to shared variables
Useful in a distributed environment where the communicating
process might be residing in different computer in a network.
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Message Passing Model
IPC facility provides two operations under message passing:
send(message) – message size fixed or variable
receive(message)
Fixed Size – System level implementations are easier but makes the task of
programming more difficult
Variable size – Requires a more complex system level implementation but the
task of programming becomes simpler
If P and Q wish to communicate, they need to:
establish a communication link between them
exchange messages via send/receive Q
Implementation of communication link
physical (e.g., shared memory, hardware bus)
logical (e.g., logical properties) P
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Message Passing Model
There are several methods for logically implementing a link and the primitive
send() and receive() operations
Direct and Indirect communication
Synchronous and Asynchronous
Automatic and Explicit Buffering
There are several issues related with features like:
Naming
Synchronization
Buffering
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Direct Communication
Processes that wants to communicate must have a way to refer each other. They can
either use direct or indirect communications.
Processes must name each other explicitly: Symmetric
send (P, message) – send a message to process P
receive(Q, message) – receive a message from process Q
Only the sender knows the receiver explicitly: Asymmetric
send (P, message) – send a message to process P
Receive(id, message) – receive a message from any process the variable “id” is
set to the name of the process with which communication has taken place
Properties of communication link
Links are established automatically
A link is associated with exactly one pair of communicating processes
Between each pair there exists exactly one link
The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bi-directional
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Indirect Communication
Messages are directed and received from mailboxes (also referred to as ports)
Each mailbox has a unique id
Processes can communicate only if they share a mailbox
A mailbox can be viewed as an abstract object into which messages can be
placed and removed.
Properties of communication link
Link established only if processes share a common mailbox
A link may be associated with many processes
Each pair of processes may share several communication links
Link may be unidirectional or bi-directional
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Indirect Communication
Operations
create a new mailbox
send and receive messages through mailbox
destroy a mailbox
Primitives are defined as:
send(A, message) – send a message to mailbox A
receive(A, message) – receive a message from
mailbox A
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Indirect Communication
Mailbox sharing
P1, P2, and P3 share mailbox A
P1, sends; P2 and P3 receive
Who gets the message?
Solutions
Allow a link to be associated with at most two processes
Allow only one process at a time to execute a receive operation
Allow the system to select arbitrarily the receiver. Sender is
notified who the receiver was.
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Synchronization
Message passing may be either blocking or non-blocking
Blocking is considered synchronous
Blocking send has the sender block until the message is received
Blocking receive has the receiver block until a message is
available
Non-blocking is considered asynchronous
Non-blocking send has the sender send the message and continue
Non-blocking receive has the receiver receive a valid message or
null
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Buffering
Queue of messages attached to the link; implemented in one of
three ways
1. Zero capacity – 0 messages
Sender must wait for receiver (rendezvous)
2. Bounded capacity – finite length of n messages
Sender must wait if link full
3. Unbounded capacity – infinite length
Sender never waits
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Client-Server Communication
Sockets
Remote Procedure Calls
Remote Method Invocation (Java)
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Sockets
A socket is defined as an endpoint for communication
Concatenation of IP address and port
The socket [Link]:1625 refers to port 1625 on host
[Link]
Communication consists between a pair of sockets
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Socket Communication
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Remote Procedure Calls
Remote procedure call (RPC) abstracts procedure calls between
processes on networked systems.
Stubs – client-side proxy for the actual procedure on the server.
The client-side stub locates the server and marshalls the
parameters.
The server-side stub receives this message, unpacks the
marshalled parameters, and peforms the procedure on the server.
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Execution of RPC
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Remote Method Invocation
Remote Method Invocation (RMI) is a Java mechanism similar to
RPCs.
RMI allows a Java program on one machine to invoke a method on
a remote object.
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
Marshalling Parameters
Operating System Concepts - 7th Edition, Feb 7, 2006 3.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2005
End of Chapter 3