R

Most occupations require good

problem-solving skills. For instance ,
architects and engineers must solve many
complicated problems as they design and
construct modern buildings that are
aesthetically pleasing , functional , and
that meet stringent safety requirements.

Two goals of this chapter is to help

become a better solver and to
demonstrate that problem solving can be
an enjoyable experience.
 What is a problem?

Generally, it is a situation you
want to change!
A is a tha
conforms the learner,
problem that requires
situation t
resolution, and for which the path of
the answer is not immediately
known.
There is an obstacle that prevents
one from setting a clear path to the
 What is a Problem
Solving
 has been
Problem Solving
defined as higher-order
cognitive process that
requires the modulation and
control of more routine or
fundamental skills" (Goldstein
& Levin, 1987).
 “ It is better to take what seem to
be too much math rather than too
little. Career plans change , and
one of the biggest roadblocks in
undertaking new educational or
training goals is poor preparation in
mathematics.
Furthermore , not only do people
qualify for more jobs with more
math , they also better able to
perform their jobs.
A. Understanding
Reasoning 
Mathematical reasoning refers
to the ability of a person to
analyze problem situations and
construct logical arguments to
justify his process or hypothesis,
to create both conceptual
foundations and connections, in
order for him to be able to
process available information.
NCTM pointed out
that….

People who can reason and think
analytically tend:
To note patterns, structure, or
regularities
in both real-world situations and
symbolic objects;
To ask if those patterns are
accidental or if they occur for a
reason;
To conjecture and prove
Reasoni
ng 
Students are
expected to:
1. Define athe
2. Identify statement
hypothesis and
conclusion in a statement
3. Write conditional statements
4. Write the Converse, Inverse,
Contrapositive of a given
conditional statement.
B. Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning

What kind of thinking is
used when solving
problems?
Inductive or
deductive?
 Mathematics involves the study of patterns.
In everyday life , we frequently rely on
patterns and routines to draw conclusions.
Here is an example :

The last six times I went to Centro

Tuguegarao , the traffic was light on
Sundays and heavy on Wednesdays.
My conclusion is that weekdays have
heavier than weekends.

This type of reasoning process is referred

to as inductive reasoning ,or induction.
 INDUCTIVE REASONING

Inductive reasoning is the

process of arriving at a general
conclusion based on observations
of specific examples.
 Inductive
Reasoning
 examination of specific
The type of reasoning that forms a
conclusion based on the
examples is called inductive reasoning.

Specific
Conclusio
Exampl
es n
formed by using
reasoning The
is ofteninductive
called a conjecture,
sinceit
conclusion may or may not
be correct.
 Although inductive reasoning is
a powerful method of drawing
conclusions , we can never be
absolutely certain that these
conclusions are true. For this
reason , the conclusions are
called conjectures ,
hypotheses , or educated
guess.
 A strong inductive argument
does not guarantee the truth of the
conclusion , but rather provides
strong support for the conclusion. If
there is just one case for which the
conjecture does not hold , then the
conjecture is false. Such case is
called counterexample.
Strong Inductive Argument

In a random sample of 1172 U.S.

children ages 6 through 14 , 17% said
getting bossed around is a bad thing
about being a kid. We can conclude
that there is a 95% probability that
between 14.1% and 19.9% of all U.S.
children ages 6 through 14 feel that
getting bossed around is a bad thing
about being a kid.
In this Example , you will learn how
observations from a randomly
selected group, one in which each
member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected ,
can provide probabilities of what is
true about an entire population.
Weak Inductive Argument

Men have difficulty expressing their

feelings.
Neither my dad nor my boyfriend has
never cried in front of me.
When generalizing from
observations about your own
circumstances and experiences ,
avoid jumping to hasty conclusions
based on few observations.
Psychologist theorize that we do this
, that is , place everyone in a neat
category – to feel more secure
about ourselves and our
relationships to others.
 Exampl
Example
es 
1: A baby cries, then cries, then cries to get
a milk.
We conclude that if a baby cries, he/she
gets a
Example 2: milk.
Here is a sequence of 6, 9,
numbers: 3, 12,
____
WhatWeis the
can5easily
th number?
conclude that the next
number is 15.
Example

3: You are asked to find the 7t
6th and term in the h
sequence:
1,3, first
The 6, two
10, numbers
15, ______differ
, _____
by 2.
The 2nd and 3rd numbers differ by 3.
The next difference is 4, then 5. So,
the next difference will be 6 and Thus
21
the+6th7 term
= is 15+ 6 = 21 while the 7th
Take note!

Inductive reasoning is not used just to
predict the next number in a list.
We use inductive reasoning to make a
conjecture about an arithmetic
procedure.
Inductive reasoning is extremely important
to mathematicians. Discovery in
mathematics often begins with an
examination of individual cases to reveal
patterns about numbers.
 Exerci
se
Use Inductive
Reasoning to
Make a Conjecture
A. Consider the following p r o c e d

u r e:
1. Pick a number.
2. Multiply the number by 8,
3. Add 6 to the product
4. Divide the sum by 2, and
5. Subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several
Conjecture:

Solution
Let n represents the original number
Multiply the number by 8 8n
Add 6 to the number 8n + 6
Divide the sum by 2 = 4n +
3
Subtract 3 4n + 3
– 3 = 4n

we started with n and ended with 4n. The

procedure given in this example produces a
number that is four times the original
 Activit
y
Use Inductive
Reasoning to
Make a Conjecture
B. Consider the following proce dure:
1. Pick a number.
2. Multiply the number by 9,
3. Add 15 to the product,
4. Divide the sum by 3, and
5. Subtract 5.
Complete the above procedure for several
different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a
conjecture about the relationship between the size of
the resulting number and the size of the original
number.
 Activit
y
Use Inductive
Reasoning
to Make a
Conjecture
C. Consider the following

procedure:
1. List 1 as the first odd number
2. Add the next odd number to 1.
3. Add the next odd number to the sum.
4. Repeat adding the next odd number to the
previous sum.

Construct a table to summarize the result. Use

inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the
sum obtained.
 Activit
y
Use Inductive
Reasoning
to Make a

Conjecture
D. Observe the two sets of polygons
below:

What is the name of a polygon that

can be used to describe the polygons in
column 2?
polygons in Use inductive reasoning
 Exerci
se
Use Inductive
Reasoning
to Make a
Conjecture
Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance,
Galilei Galileo
(1564–1642) used inductive reasoning to discover that
the time required for a pendulum to complete one swing,
called the period of the pendulum, depends on the length of
the pendulum. Galileo did not have a clock, so he measured
the periods of pendulums in “heartbeats.” The following
table shows some results obtained for pendulums of various
lengths. For the sake of convenience, a length of 10 inches
has been designated as 1 unit. Use the data in the table and
inductive reasoning to answer each
of the following questions.
a. If a pendulum has a length of 49
units, what is its period?
b. If the length of a pendulum
is quadrupled, what
happens to its period?
 Take
note:based on 
Conclusions
inductive reasoning
may be incorrect.
As an illustration,
consider the circles
shown. For each circle, all
possible line segments
have been drawn to
connect each dot on the
circle with all the other
dots on the circle. For
each circle, count the
number of regions formed
by the line segments that
 Counterexamples

A statement is a true
statement provided that it is
true in all cases. If you can
find one casenot
statementis for true,
whichcalled
a
a th
counterexample,
statement is a false then e
statement
 Exercise 1

Verify that each of the following
statements is a false statement by
finding a counterexample.

a. 𝒙 > 𝟎
For all numbers x:

b. 𝒙𝟐 > 𝒙
c. 𝒙−𝟏 < 𝒙
MMW by Joseph G. Taban ,
 Exercise 2

Verify that each of the following
statements is a false statement by
finding a counterexample.

For all numbers x:

 We use inductive reasoning in
everyday life. Many of the conjectures
that come from this kind of thinking
seem highly likely , although we can
never be absolutely certain that they
are true.
Another method of reasoning ,
called deductive reasoning , or
deduction , can be used to prove
that some conjectures are true.
 DEDUCTIVE
REASONING:
Another type of reasoning is
called
deductive reasoning.
Deductive reasoning is
distinguished from inductive
reasoning in that, it is the
process of reaching a conclusion
by applying general principles
 
Mathematics is essentially
deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning is always
valid
Deductive reasoning makes use
of undefined terms, formally
defined terms, axioms,
theorems, and rules of
Deductive reasoning is the
process of proving a specific
conclusions from one or more
general statements.

A conclusion that is proved true by

deductive reasoning is called
theorem.
Here are two examples of deductive
reasoning.
Notice that in both everyday
situations , the general statement
from which the conclusion is drawn is
implied rather than directly stated.
Everyday Situation:
One player to another in a scrabble
game: “You have to remove those
five letters .
You can’t use TEXAS as a word,”
Deductive Reasoning:

• All proper names are prohibited in

scrabble. -- General statement

• TEXAS is a proper name. Therefore ,

TEXAS is prohibited in scrabble --
Conclusion
 Examples of Deductive
Reasoning
Example

1: If a number is divisible by 2, then it must
be even. 12 is divisible by 2.
Therefore, 12 is an even number.
Example 2:
All math teachers know how to play
sudoku. Resty is a math teacher.
Therefore, Resty knows how to play
sudoku.
 Examples of Deductive
Reasoning
Example

3: If a student is a DOST scholar, he
receives a monthly allowance.
If a student receives a monthly
allowance, his parents will be happy.
Therefore, if a student is a DOST
scholar, his parents will be happy.

If ∠A and ∠B are
Example 4:

supplementary angles. If m∠A =

Take note:

The essence of deductive reasoning
is drawing a conclusion from a
given statement.
The deductive reasoning works best
when the statements used in the
argument are true and the
statements
in the argument clearly follow from one
another.
 Logic
Puzzles 
 Logic Puzzles can be solved by deductive reasoning
and a chart that enables us to display the given
information in a visual manner.
Example 1:
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian,
has a different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist).
From the following clues, determine the occupation
of each neighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before
the dentist.
[Link], who is the last to get home from work, is not
the editor.
[Link] dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same
 SOLUTIO
CLUES N
: [Link] gets home from work after the banker but before the
dentist.
[Link], who is the last to get home from work, is not the
editor.
[Link]
4. Thedentist
bankerand Sarah
lives
Editor Banke
r
next leave forBria
door to
Chef Dentist 
work at
n. the same time.
 We know from clue 1 that the
banker is not the last to get
Sean home, and we know from
X X X clue 2 that Sarah is the last
Maria to get home; therefore,
X X X Sarah is not the banker.
Sarah
X X X  From clue 3, Sarah is not
the dentist.
Brian
X X X
 As a result, Sarah is the
 From clue 1: Maria is not Chef.
the banker or the  Maria is the Editor.
dentist.
 From clue 2, Sarah is not  From clue 4, Brian is not
the editor. the banker.
 Brian is the Dentist.
 Activity

 Brianna, Ryan, Tyler, and Ashley were recently
elected as the new class officers (president,
vice president, secretary, treasurer) of the
sophomore class at Summit College.

From the following clues, determine which

position each holds:
[Link] is younger than the president
but older than the
treasurer.
[Link] and the secretary are both the
same age, and
they are the youngest members of the
C. INTUITION, PROOF, AND CERTAINTY


1. INTUITION
Intuition is the ability to acquire
knowledge without proof, evidence, or
conscious reasoning, or without
understanding how the knowledge was
acquired.

“Intuition is a sense of knowing

how to act spontaneously, without
needing to know why” – Sylvia Clare
Example of Intuition

Mina and Sarah are getting ready
for school. Mina said, “ I have a
very strong feeling that it will rain
this afternoon. Let us each bring a
jacket”
 

By intuition, we know truth

simply by the process of
introspection and immediate
awareness.
[Link]

A proof is a sequence of
statements that form an
argument.

There are two common

methods of proof:
1. Direct Proof
2. Indirect Proof
Direct Proof

In a direct proof
You assume the hypothesis p
Give a direct series
(sequence) of implications
using definitions, axioms,
theorems and rules of
inference
Show that the conclusion q
Direct proof
example

Show that the square of an even
number is an even number .

Rephrase: If n is even, then n2 is even.

Assume n is even

even numbers) – n2 = (2k)2 = 4k2 =

–Thus, n = 2k, for some k (definition of

2(2𝑘2 )
For students

The best way to improve proof
skills is PRACTICE.

Let them prove in Algebra

Ex. Prove that “If 8x – 5 = 19,
then x =3.”
The sum of two odd integers is even.
 Indirect
Proof 
When we
use
an indirect
proof to
prove a
theory, we
follow three
steps.

An indirect proof is also called a proof by

contradiction, because we are literally
looking for a contradiction to a theory being
Indirect proof example

If 𝒏𝟐 is an odd integer then n is an
odd integer.
Proof:
Assume the conclusion to be false. n is
an even integer
- n=2k for some integer k (definition
of even numbers)
- n2 = (2𝑘)2 = 4𝑘2 = 2(2 𝑘 2 )
- Since n2 is 2 times an integer, it is
3.
Certainty 
There are three lines of inquiry to
address the problem of certainty in
mathematics.
1. Look at the historical development
of mathematics
2. Sketch the individual
cognitive development in
mathematics
3. Examine the foundations of
 D. PROBLEM -SOLVING
STRATEGIES

Ancient mathematicians who
were interested in problem-solving
are Euclid, Rene Descartes, and
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz.
One of the foremost recent
mathematicians to make a study of
problem solving was George Polya
(1887–1985). He was born in
Hungary and moved to the United
 POLYA’S STEPS IN
PROBLEM SOLVING

Understand
the
Problem
Devise a Plan

Carry out the Plan

Look
Back
 Devise Carry
Look
a out the
Back
Plan Plan


 Do you understand all the words used in stating the
problem?
 What are you asked to find or show?


 Can
Can you
you restate
think of the problem
a picture in your own
or diagram thatwords?
might help
you understand the problem?
 Is there enough information to enable you to find a
solution?
 Understand Carry
Look
the out the
Back
Problem Plan


Find the connection
between the data and
the unknown. You may be obliged to
consider auxiliary problems if an immediate
connection cannot be found. You should
obtain eventually a plan of the solution.
Polya mentions that there are many
reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill
at choosing an appropriate strategy is best
 Understand Carry
the
Problem
j out the
Plan
Look
Back

 Make a list of the  Try to solve a

A partial list of strategies is included:
known information. similar but simpler
 Make a list of problem.
information that is  Look for a pattern.
needed.  Write an equation. If
 Draw a diagram. necessary, define what
 Make an organized each variable
list that shows all the represents.
possibilities.  Perform an
 Make a table or a experiment.
4
6
Understand Devise Loo
the a k
Problem Plan Bac


k

■Work carefully.
■Keep an accurate and neat record
of all your attempts.
■Realize that some of your initial plans
will not work and that you may have
to devise another plan or modify your
existing plan.
Understand Devise Carry
the a out the
Problem Plan Plan


Once you have found a solution, check the
solution.

■Ensure that the solution is consistent

with the facts of the problem.
■Interpret the solution in the context
of the problem.
■Ask yourself whether there are
Applying the four –step
procedure
By paying $100 cash up front and the balance at
$20 a week , how long will it take to pay for a bicycle
costing $680 ?
Solution:
Step 1 : Understand the problem. Here’s what is
given:
cost of the bicycle : $ 680
amount paid in cash : $100
weekly payment : $20

The word balance means the amount still to be paid.

we must find the balance to determine the number
of weeks required to pay off the bicycle.
 Step 2: Devise a Plan

Subtract the amount paid in cash from

the cost of the bicycle. This results in
the amount still to be paid. Because
weekly payments are $20 , divide the
amount still to be paid by 20. This will
give the number of weeks required to
pay for the bicycle.
 Step 3 : Carry out the plan and
solve the problem
Begin by finding the balance , the
amount still to be paid for the bicycle.
$ 680 - cost of the bicycle
- $100 - amount paid in cash
_______
$ 580 - amount still to be paid
Now divide the $580 balance by $20 ,
the payment per week. The result is 29
weeks.
It will take 29 weeks to pay for the
step 4 Look back and check the answer.
$20
x 29
______
$ 580 - total of weekly payment

$580
+ $100
______
$ 680 cost of the bicycle
E. Mathematical
Problems
Involving
Patterns 
Predict the next term in a
sequence
nth-term Formula for a
Sequence
Word Problems which
involves numerical pattern
 TERMS OF A
SEQUENCE

An ordered list of numbers such as
5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...
is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence
that are separated by commas are the terms of the
sequence. In the above sequence, 5 is the first term,
14 is the second term, 27 is the third term, 44 is the
fourth term, and 65 is the fifth term. The three dots
“...” indicate that the sequence continues beyond
65, which is the last written term. It is customary to
use the subscript notation an to designate the nth
term of a sequence. That is,
Exercise:

Give problems involving sequence of
numbers and worded problems
involving numerical patterns
Ex. 1. Find the 10th term in the
sequence
3, 7, 11,
15,…
2. Mark saves money from his
allowance. Each day he saves 12 pesos
more than the previous day. If he started
 F. Recreational Problems
using Mathematics
Sudok

u
Magic Squares
A magic square of order n is an arrangement
of numbers in a square such that the sum of the n
numbers in each row, column, and diagonal is the
same number..
KenKen Puzzles
KenKen is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that
was invented by the Japanese mathematics teacher
Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun “ken” has
“knowledge” and “awareness” as synonyms. Hence,
KenKen translates as knowledge squared, or
awareness squared.
KenKen puzzles are similar to Sudoku puzzles,
but they also require you to perform arithmetic to
 

QUI
Z
 

Problem Set #
1
References

 Mathematical Excursions (Ch. 1) by R.
Aufmann , et al.
 Mathematical Excursions Ch. 2) by R.
Aufmann et al.