Learning and
Transfer of
Training
Chapter 4 6th Edition
Raymond A. Noe
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Objectives
• Discuss the five types of learner outcomes
• Explain the implications of learning theory for
instructional design
• Incorporate adult learning theory into the
design of a training program
• Describe how learners receive, process, store,
retrieve, and act upon information
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Objectives
Discuss the internal conditions (within the
learner) and external conditions (learning
environment) necessary for the trainee to
learn each type of capability
Discuss the implications of open and
closed skills and near and far transfer for
designing training programs
Explain the features of instruction and the
work environment that are necessary for
learning and transfer of training
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Introduction
Certain conditions must be present for
learning to occur:
Provide opportunities for trainees to practice
and receive feedback
Offer meaningful training content
Identify any prerequisites that trainees need to
complete the program successfully
Allow trainees to learn through observation and
experience and ensure that the work
environment supports use of skills
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Introduction
Transfer of training: Trainees effectively
and continually applying what they have
learned in training to their jobs
Generalization: Trainee’s ability to apply
what they learned to on-the job work
problems
Maintenance: Process of trainees
continuing to use what they learned over
time
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Table 4.1 – Learning Outcomes
Type of Learning Description of Example
Outcome Capability
Verbal information State, tell, or describe State three reasons for
previously stored following company safety
information. procedures.
Intellectual skills Apply generalizable Design and code a
concepts and rules to computer program that
solve problems and meets customer
generate novel products. requirements.
Motor skills Execute a physical actionShoot a gun and
with precision and timing.
consistently hit a small
moving target.
Attitudes Choose a personal course Choose to respond to all
of action. incoming mail within 24
hours.
Cognitive strategies Manage one's own Use three different
thinking and learning strategies selectively to
processes. diagnose engine
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Figure 4.1 A Model of Learning and
Transfer of Training
Trainee Characteristics
Transfer of Training
Training Design Learning • Generalization
• Maintenance
Work Environment
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Learning Theories
Social
Reinforcem Goal
Learning
ent Theory Theories
Theory
Adult
Need Expectancy
Learning
Theories Theory
Theory
Information
Processing
Theory
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Reinforcement Theory
Emphasizes that people are motivated to
perform or avoid certain behaviors
because of past outcomes that have
resulted from those behaviors
Processes in reinforcement theory
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Extinction
Punishment
The trainer needs to identify what
outcomes the learner finds most positive
and negative
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Reinforcement Theory
Trainers then need to link these outcomes
to learners acquiring knowledge, skills, or
changing behaviours
Trainers can withhold or provide job-
related, personal, and career-related
benefits to learners who master program
content
Behavior modification is a training method
that is primarily based on reinforcement
theory
Employees were encouraged to increase the
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number of safe behaviors they demonstrated on
Social Learning Theory
Emphasizes that people learn by observing
other persons (models) whom they believe
are credible and knowledgeable
The theory recognizes that behavior that is
reinforced or rewarded tends to be
repeated
Learning new skills or behavior comes
from:
Directly experiencing the consequences of
using a behavior or skill
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the consequences of their behavior
Social Learning Theory
Person’s self-efficacy can be increased
using several methods
Verbal persuasion
Logical verification
Observation of others (modeling)
Past accomplishments
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Figure 4.2 - Processes of Social
Learning Theory
Motor
Attention Retention Reproduction
Motivational Match
Processes Modeled
• Model Stimuli • Coding • Physical
Performanc
• Trainee • Organization Capability
• Reinforcement e
• Characteristics • Rehearsal • Accuracy
• Feedback
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Goal Theories
Goal setting theory: Assumes that
behavior results from a person’s conscious
goals and intentions
Goals influence a person’s behavior by:
Directing energy and attention
Sustaining effort over time
Motivating the person to develop strategies for
goal attainment
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Goal Theories
Goal setting theory
It is used in training program design
It suggests that learning can be facilitated
by providing trainees with specific
challenging goals and objectives
The influence of goal setting theory can be
seen in the development of training lesson
plans
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Goal Theories
Goal orientation: Goals held by a trainee
in a learning situation
Includes learning and performance
orientation
Learning orientation: Trying to increase
ability or competence in a task
Performance orientation: Learners who
focus on task performance and how they
compare to others
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Goal Theories
Goal orientation
It affects the amount of effort a trainee will
expend in learning (motivation to learn)
Learners with a high learning orientation will
direct greater attention to the task and learn
for the sake of learning in comparison to
learners with a performance orientation
Learners with a performance orientation will
direct more attention to performing well and
less effort to learning
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Need Theories
Helps to explain the value that a person
places on certain outcomes
Need: A deficiency that a person is
experiencing at any point in time
Maslow’s and Alderfer’s need theories
focused on physiological needs,
relatedness needs, and growth needs
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Need Theories
The major difference between Alderfer’s
and Maslow’s hierarchies of needs is that
Alderfer allows the possibility that if higher-
level needs are not satisfied, employees
will refocus on lower-level needs
McClelland’s need theory focused primarily
on needs for achievement, affiliation, and
power
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Need Theories
Suggest that to motivate learning, trainers
should identify trainees’ needs and
communicate how training program
content relates to fulfilling these needs
If certain basic needs of trainees are not
met, they are unlikely to be motivated to
learn
Implication of need theory relates to
providing employees with a choice of
training programs to attend
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Expectancy Theory
It suggests that a person’s behavior is
based on three factors:
Expectancies: Link between trying to
perform a behavior and actually performing
well
Instrumentality: Belief that performing a
given behavior is associated with a
particular outcome
Valence: Value that a person places on an
outcome
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Figure 4.3 - Expectancy Theory of
Motivation
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Adult Learning Theory
Was developed out of a need for a specific
theory of how adults learn
Andragogy: Theory of adult learning
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Adult Learning Theory
Assumptions of the theory
Adults have the need to know why they are
learning something
Adults have a need to be self-directed
Adults bring more work-related experiences
into the learning situation
Adults enter a learning experience with a
problem-centered approach to learning
Adults are motivated to learn by both
extrinsic and intrinsic motivators
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Table 4.2 - Implications of
Adult Learning Theory for Training
Design Issues Implications
Self-concept Mutual planning and
collaboration in instruction
Experience Use learner experience as
basis for examples and
applications
Readiness Develop instruction based on
the learner’s interests and
competencies
Time Perspective Immediate application of
content
Orientation to learning Problem-centered instead of
subject-centered
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Information Processing Theory
It gives more emphasis to the internal
processes that occur when training content
is learned and retained
Highlights external events influencing
learning
Changes in the intensity of the stimulus that
affect attention
Informing the learner of the objectives to
establish an expectation
Enhancing perceptual features of the
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Information Processing Theory
Verbal instructions, pictures, diagrams, and
maps suggesting ways to code the training
content so that it can be stored in memory
Meaningful learning context (examples,
problems) creating cues that facilitate
coding
Demonstration or verbal instructions helping
to organize the learner’s response as well as
facilitating the selection of the correct
response
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Figure 4.4 – A Model of Human
Information Processing
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Transfer of Training Theory
Transfer of training is more difficult when
tasks during training are different from the
work environment
Closed skills: Training objectives that are
linked to learning specific skills that are to
be identically produced by the trainee on
their job
Open skills: Linked to more general
learning principles
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Table 4.3 - Transfer of Training
Theories
Theory Emphasis Appropriate Type of Transfer
Conditions
Identical Training Training focuses on Near
elements environment is closed skills
identical to work Work environment
environment. features are
predictable and
stable.
Example: Training
to use equipment.
Training focuses on
open skills.
Stimulus General principles Work environment Far
generalization are applicable to is unpredictable
many different work and highly variable.
situations. Example: Training
In interpersonal
skills.
Cognitive theory Meaningful material All types of training Near and far
and coding and environments.
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The Learning Process
Mental and physical processes
Expectancy: Mental state that the learner
brings to the instructional process
Perception: Ability to organize the
message from the environment so that it
can be processed and acted upon
Working storage: Rehearsal and repetition
of information occurs
Semantic encoding: Actual coding process
of incoming messages
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The Learning Process
Learning strategies
Rehearsal: Focuses on learning through
repetition
Organizing: Requires the learner to find
similarities and themes in the training
material
Elaboration: Requires the trainee to relate
the training material to other, more familiar
knowledge
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The Learning Process
The learning cycle involves four stages:
Concrete experience
Reflective observation
Abstract conceptualization
Active experimentation
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Table 4.5 – Learning Styles
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The Learning Process
Instruction: Trainer’s manipulation of the
environment in order to help trainees learn
Training context: The physical,
intellectual, and emotional environment in
which training occurs.
Practice: Physical or mental rehearsal of a
task, knowledge, or skill to achieve
proficiency in performing the task or skill
or demonstrating the knowledge.
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Table 4.6 - Features of Instruction and the Work
Environment that Facilitate Learning and Transfer of
Training
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Table 4.8 - Characteristics of Good
Training Objectives
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The Learning Process
Pre-practice conditions
Provide information about the process or
strategy
Encourage trainees to develop a strategy
(metacognition) to reflect on their own
learning process
Provide advance organizers
Help trainees set challenging learning goals
Create realistic expectations
Communicate performance expectations
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The Learning Process
Overlearning: Trainees need to continue
to practice even if they have been able to
perform the objective several times
Error management training: Giving
trainees opportunities to make errors
during training and to learn from them
Massed practice: Individuals practice a
task continuously, without resting
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The Learning Process
Spaced practice: Individuals are given
rest intervals within practice sessions
Spaced practice is superior to massed
practice
Overall task complexity: Degree to
which a task requires a number of distinct
behaviors, the number of choices involved
in performing the task, and the degree of
uncertainty in performing the task
Mental requirements: Degree to which
the task requires the subject to use or
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demonstrate mental skills or cognitive
The Learning Process
Physical requirements: Degree to which
the task requires the person to use or
demonstrate physical skills and abilities to
perform and complete the task
Whole practice: All tasks or objectives
should be practiced at the same time
Part practice: An objective or task should
be practiced individually as soon as each is
introduced in the training program
Practice must be related to the training
objectives
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The Learning Process
To create long-term memory, training
programs must be explicit on content and
elaborate on details
If a lengthy process or procedure is to be
taught, instruction needs to be delivered in
short sessions in order to not exceed
memory limits
Automatization: Making performance of
a task, recall of knowledge, or
demonstration of a skill so automatic that
it requires little thought or attention
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Table 4.12 - Three Types of
Instructional Interaction
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The Learning Process
Employees learn through observation,
experience, and interacting with others
Communities of practice: Groups of
employees who work together, learn from
each other, and develop a common
understanding of how to get work
accomplished
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The Learning Process
Training administration: Coordinating
activities before, during, and after the
program
Communicating courses and programs to
employees
Enrolling employees in courses and
programs
Preparing and processing any pretraining
materials
Preparing materials that will be used in
instruction
Arranging for the training facility and room
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The Learning Process
Providing support during instruction
Distributing evaluation materials
Facilitating communications between trainer
and trainees during and after training
Recording course completion in the trainees’
training records
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Encourage Trainee Responsibility
and Self-Management
Self-management: Person’s attempt
to control certain aspects of decision
making and behavior
Determining the degree of support and
negative consequences in the work setting
Setting goals for using learned capabilities
Applying learned capabilities
Monitoring use of learned capabilities
Engaging in self-reinforcement
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Ensure that the Work Environment
Supports Learning and Transfer
Lapses: Take place when the trainee
uses previously learned, less effective
capabilities instead of trying to apply
the capability emphasized in the
training program
Climate for transfer: Trainees’
perceptions about a wide variety of
characteristics of the work environment
that facilitate or inhibit the use of
trained skills or behavior
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Table 4.13 - Examples of Obstacles in
the Work Environment That Inhibit
Transfer of Training
Obstacle Work Conditions Description Description of Influence
of Influence Trainee has difficulty using new knowledge,
Time pressures skills, or behavior.
Inadequate equipment
Few opportunities to use skills
Inadequate budget
Lack of Peer Support Peers do not support use of new knowledge,
Peers discourage use of new knowledge and skills, or behavior.
skills on the job.
Peers are unwilling to provide feedback.
Peers see training as waste of time.
Lack of Management Support Managers do not reinforce training or provide
Management does not accept ideas or opportunities to use new knowledge, skills, or
suggestions that are learned in training. behavior
Management does not discuss training
opportunities.
Management opposes use of skills learned in
training.
Management communicates that training is
a waste of time.
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Management is unwilling to provide
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reinforcement, feedback, and
Instructional Emphasis for Learning
Outcomes
Internal conditions: Processes within
the learner that must be present for
learning to occur
Processes include how information is
registered, stored in memory, and recalled
External conditions: Processes in the
learning environment that facilitate
learning
Include the physical learning environment
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Table 4.15 - Internal and External Conditions
Necessary for Learning Outcomes
Learning Internal Conditions External Conditions
Outcomes Previously learned knowledge Repeated practice
Verbal and Meaningful chunks
Information verbal information Advance organizers
Labels, facts, and Strategies for coding Recall cues
propositions information into
memory
Intellectual Link between new and previously
Skills learned knowledge
Knowing how
Cognitive Recall of prerequisites, similar Verbal description of strategy
Strategies tasks, Strategy demonstration
Process of and strategies Practice with feedback
thinking Variety of tasks that provide
and learning opportunity to apply strategy
Attitudes Mastery of prerequisites Demonstration by a model
Choice of personal Identification with model Positive learning environment
action Cognitive dissonance Strong message from credible source
Reinforcement
Motor Skills Recall of part skills Practice
Muscular actions Coordination program Demonstration
Gradual decrease of external
feedback
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