Third Sem.
– Physiology and Ethology (ZOL3CO3T)
Section A – Physiology
Module 1. Trans-membrane transport mechanisms
Structure of Plasma membrane – Fluid mosaic model – Trans membrane transport –
passive and active mechanisms – Vesicular Transport
Plasma membrane (PM): or cell membrane is the
biological membrane which is present in both
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
• It acts as a barrier between outer and inner surface
of a cell.
• PM is present as outer most layer or envelop in
animal cell but is present beneath the cell wall in
plant cell and in most of the prokaryotic cells.
Plasma membrane cont.
• The cell membrane has extracellular face (facing
outer environment) and intracellular face (facing
cytoplasm.
• In eukaryotes the PM extends into the interior of
the cell to divide the protoplasm into a number of
compartments to form cell organelles such
endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria,, Golgi
apparatus etc.
• In prokaryotic cells the PM extends into the interior
of the cell as mesosomes but does not form
separate compartments.
Plasma membrane cont.
• Thin (4-10nm), delicate, semi-permeable PM are
impermeable to most polar or charged solutes but
permeable to non-polar compounds.
• PM controls the entrance and exit of molecules and
ions. Permeability of PM depends on physiological
state of cell and size and nature of molecules.
Molecular organization of PM:
• PM is easily obtained from erythrocytes subjected
to haemolysis. The resulting membrane is called
red cell ghost and are used for biochemical analysis.
Plasma membrane cont.
• Chemical composition: PM is composed mainly of
proteins (approx. 52% of its mass), lipid (40%) and
carbohydrates (8%).
• Oligosaccharides are bound to lipids (glycolipids) or
to the proteins (glycoproteins).
• Lipids: components are phospholipids (75%),
cholesterol (20%) and glycolipids (5%)
• Mostly lipids are amphipathic having both polar and
non-polar parts.
• Acts as permeability barriers. Essential for the
maintenance of fluidity of membranes.
Plasma membrane cont.
• Distribution of lipids (phospholipids, cholesterol
and glycolipids) are highly asymmetrical, i.e., their
distribution is non-uniform between two surfaces.
• Lipid layer forms the structural framework of PM.
Plasma membrane cont.
• Proteins: Two types of proteins are present in
membrane – Integral proteins and peripheral
proteins.
• Integral proteins: extend through the lipid bilayer
and are firmly embedded in it. Usually insoluble in
water. Most integral proteins are transmembrane
proteins.
• Peripheral proteins are not embedded in the
membrane. They loosely associate with the polar
heads of membrane lipids at the inner or outer
surface of the membrane and are water soluble.
Plasma membrane cont.
• Proteins play an important role not only in the
mechanical structure of the membrane, but also as
carriers, serving for transport.
• In addition, numerous enzymes, antigens and
various kinds of receptor molecules are present in
the PM.
• Many membrane proteins are glycoproteins, which
serve as cell identity markers.
Types of membrane proteins
Plasma membrane cont.
• Membrane carbohydrates - are covalently bound to
lipids to form glycolipids or to the protein to form
glycoproteins.
• They are confined exclusively on the extracellular
membrane surface.
• These are mostly glucose, galactose, mannose, N-
acetyl glucosamine and N-acetyl galactosamine’
• They are involved cell communication and
recognition.
Plasma membrane cont.
Fine structure of PM: A variety of molecular models have
been proposed from time to time to explain the
arrangement of molecules in plasma membrane.
• Important model proposed are the Lipid bilayer
(Danielli and Davson, 1935), Unit membrane model
(Robertson,1959), and Fluid mosaic model (Singer and
Nicolson, 1972).
Fluid mosaic model: 1. According to this model, the cell
membrane is composed of a continuous phospholipid
bilayer, which is then embedded with cholesterol,
proteins and carbohydrate, that form a kind of mosaic
arrangement.
Plasma membrane cont.
2. The ‘backbone’ of the membrane is a bilayer of
phospholipids.
– Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules having
hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail.
– The hydrophilic part of the fatty acid is the
phosphate group and the hydrophobic part is fatty
acid chain.
– The hydrophilic part face outwards and hydrophobic
tail are attracted to each other and face inwards
and away from water.
3. Based on the position, proteins are divided into two
groups: Integral protein and peripheral proteins.
Plasma membrane cont.
Integral or intrinsic proteins: Usually insoluble in water
and requires drastic procedure for isolation.
• Most of the integral proteins spans the entire
membrane, known as transmembrane proteins.
• These proteins form channels and pores that allow the
movement of large, polar molecules across the
membrane
Peripheral or extrinsic proteins: water soluble and can be
separated easily.
• Generally peripheral proteins are embedded on the
single layer of the membrane.
• Used in signaling cascade and act as carrier molecules.
Plasma membrane cont.
4. The biological membranes are quasi fluid structures in
which both the lipids and integral proteins are able to
perform translational movements within the overall bilayer.
- The mosaic model is supported by X-ay diffraction studies.
[Link]: The proteins of the membrane can be
covalently attached to carbohydrate and form glycoprotein.
- It helps in stabilization of membrane and serve as a tool for
intercellular communication.
- They form receptors for hormones and neurotransmitters.
- Glycoprotein create a kind of ‘cell singnature’ and are
recognized by immune cells.
Plasma membrane cont.
6. Glycolipids: Short carbohydrate chains attached to lipid
molecules and protruding out from cell surface is
known as glycolipids. They serve as recognition sites
for cell-cell interaction.
7. Cholesterol: presence of cholesterol in the
phospholipid layer allows the membrane to retain its
permeability. It appears to inserted in the middle of
the phospholipids.
• According to Singer and Nicolson, basic frame work of
the membrane is same for all the membrane, but the
ratio of lipid, protein and carbohydrate may vary greatly
among different membranes.
Plasma membrane cont.
Functions of Plasma membrane:
• The primary function of the plasma membrane is to
protect the cell from its surroundings.
• The cell membrane is selectively permeable and
regulates the entry and exits of molecules needed for
survival of the cell.
• Diffusion and Osmosis: Water molecules move rapidly
through the cell membranes by a process called
osmosis.
• This involves movement of water from a region of
lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute
concentration.
Plasma membrane cont.
• Osmosis is an important factor in the re-absorption
of water by the alimentary canal and kidney
tubules.
• Simple Diffusion: Movement of solute molecules
from a region of high concentration to a region of
lower concentration is called diffusion.
• Movement of carbon dioxide, oxygen, ions and
other molecules can occur via diffusion.
• Ions can move across the plasma membrane
through specialized ion channels.
Plasma membrane cont.
• Facilitated diffusion: Transport of nutrients such as
sugars and amino acids and certain products of
metabolism are facilitated by certain membrane
proteins, is called facilitated diffusion.
• Facilitated diffusion is the process of spontaneous
passive transport of molecules or ions across the
biological membrane via specific transmembrane
protein.
• They pass through carrier protein without energy,
along the concentration gradient.
Plasma membrane cont.
The process of facilitated diffusion involves:
[Link] molecules combine with the specific
carrier protein molecules forming carrier-protein
complexes.
2. The shape of carrier protein molecule changes in
response to the diffusing molecule so that the
membrane – bound carrier protein complexes form,
channels.
3. The shape of carrier protein molecule changes in
response to diffusing molecule, allowing the
molecule to cross the plasma membrane.
Plasma membrane cont.
4. Once the diffusing molecule has reached the other
side, the change in shape of carrier molecule
(conformational change) lowers its affinity with the
diffusing molecule, and allows it to be released.
5. After the release of diffusing molecule, the carrier-
protein molecule resumes original shape.
• The facilitated diffusion enables molecules to cross
the otherwise impermeable or poorly permeable
membrane.
Plasma membrane cont.
• Facilitated diffusion differs from simple diffusion in
following features:
(i) Facilitated diffusion is stereo-specific (either L or D-
isomer is transported).
(ii) It shows saturation kinetics.
(iii) Facilitated diffusion requires a carrier for transport
across the membrane. The carrier protein
molecules move to and fro across the membrane by
thermal diffusion.
Plasma membrane cont.
Active Transport:
• It is uphill movement of materials across the
membranes where the solute particles move
against their chemical concentration or electro-
chemical gradient.
• This form of transport requires energy which is
provided almost exclusively by hydrolysis of ATP.
• Active transport occurs in case of both ions and
non-electrolytes, e.g., salt uptake by plant cells,
ions, glucose in case of renal tubules, sodium and
potassium in case of nerve cells, etc.
Plasma membrane cont.
• The carrier molecules are ATPases, enzymes that
catalyze the hydrolysis of ATP. The most important
of these ATPases is Na+-K+ ATPase which is also
known as the Na+-K+pump.
• There is a special carrier molecule for each solute
particle. The carrier has its binding site on two
surfaces of the membrane.
• The solute particles combine with the carrier to
form carrier-solute complex.
• In the bound state the carrier undergoes a
conformational change which transports the solute
to the other side of the membrane.
Plasma membrane cont
• Energy is used in bringing about the
conformational change in the carrier. It is
provided by ATP.
• In the process ATP is dephosphorylated to form
ADP. Carrier proteins are of three types.
1. Uniport: They transport only one substance.
2. Symports: In some cases, transport requires the
binding of more than one substance to the
transport protein and the substances are
transported across the membrane together.
Plasma membrane cont
• An example is the symport in the intestinal mucosa
that is responsible for the co-transport by facilitated
diffusion of Na+ and glucose from the intestinal
lumen into mucosal cells.
3. Antiports: They exchange one substance for
another. The Na+-K+ ATPase is a typical antiport.
Transport of Solid Particles (Bulk transport):
• Bulk transport inwards as well as outwards occurs
across the plasma membrane by invagination and
evagination of the membrane.
Plasma membrane cont
• Bulk transport is useful in carrying large molecules
which would have difficulty in passing through the
cell membrane normally.
• Endocytosis and exocytosis are the two ways in
which bulk transport is accomplished.
• Endocytosis is the process of engulfing large sized
particles of food substances or of foreign
substances. According to the nature of substances,
the endocytosis may be:
• (i) Pinocytosis or cells drinking is the process of
intake of fluid material by the cell.
Plasma membrane cont
(ii) Phagocytosis is engulfing of large sized particles of
solid food or solid matter by the cell.
(iii) Exocytosis is the process of exudating the
secretary products to outside the cell cytoplasm. It
is also known as emeiocytosis or cell vomiting.