Chapter 1: Investigating human biology
1.1 Studying human biological science
What is human biological science?
Human biological science is the scientific study of humans, both as
individuals and as populations, and the study of the interaction between
humans and their environment.
It utilises a wide range of fields of study to develop an in-depth knowledge of
humans.
Science is a process of inquiry and a body of knowledge. Knowledge is
continually increasing as new discoveries are made, and existing knowledge
often has to be modified, or even discarded, as new evidence accumulates.
1.1 Studying human biological science
How do scientists investigate?
Literature review
A review of books, scientific journals and the Internet to see what information has
already been collected by others.
Observation
Information is gathered using the senses or instruments that enhance the
senses, such as a microscope or stethoscope.
Classification
The grouping of organisms based on the similarity of their characteristics; the
placement of organisms into groups.
Experimentation
An experiment tests a hypothesis. It must be designed so that the results clearly
support or disprove the hypothesis being tested. Only one factor, or variable, is
tested at a time.
1.2 Scientific method
The scientific method is a process of conducting valid investigations. The
precise method will be unique to the particular circumstances, but the underlying
pattern of logical thought is similar in all cases.
1.2 Scientific method
Identifying a problem
Scientific investigation begins with a problem. Curiosity about why and how things
happen is a characteristic of human nature.
Collecting information
Having defined the problem, the scientist begins to collect information about the
problem. This may involve direct observation.
Identifying variables
A variable is any factor that may change during an experiment. In an investigation,
variables are classified as either independent, dependent or controlled.
•The independent variable is the factor that is being investigated. This means that it
is the factor that is deliberately changed to determine how it affects the results (also
called the experimental variable or the manipulated variable).
•The dependent variable is the factor that changes due to the changes made to the
independent variable (also called the responding variable).
•Controlled variables are the factors that are kept the same for both the control and
experimental groups in an experiment.
1.2 Scientific method
Developing a hypothesis
After collecting information related to the problem, the scientist can then suggest
an explanation for the observations. This is called a hypothesis: a statement of
the expected relationship between the independent and dependent variable that
can be tested.
A hypothesis requires investigation to collect evidence that will support it, and
therefore must be testable. A good hypothesis:
•is a definite statement, not a question
•is short
•has a single idea that can be tested
•usually links the independent and dependent variables.
1.2 Scientific method
Testing the hypothesis
The next step is to test the hypothesis, or a prediction made from the hypothesis,
by using a suitable experiment.
Only one factor or variable is tested at a time. A control, or comparison,
experiment is also done in which nothing has been changed. This is known as a
fair test.
The scientist observes and records all the information from the experiment. This
information is called the data. Whenever possible, the results of an experiment
should involve measurement, or quantitative data, and direct observation, or
qualitative data.
Scientific experiments always involve repetition; doing the same experiment
many times, or performing the experiment on a large number of subjects at the
same time.
1.2 Scientific method
Presentation of data
In order to see any trend, the data needs to be presented in an organised
manner.
Tables
A table is an organised and concise way of presenting data. Include an
informative title, present the data in columns, and ensure each column has a
heading that names the variable and the units in which it is measured.
For example, the results of the experiment on the effect of vitamin A on the
growth of young rats is presented in the following table.
1.2 Scientific method
Graphs
A graph shows how changes in one variable affect a second variable.
When drawing a graph:
•Include a title that summarises the relationship between the variables. This is
usually written below the graph, as graphs are classified as figures.
•Label the axes with the names of the variables.
•Indicate the units in which each variable is measured.
•Use a scale with equal intervals of units on each axis.
1.2 Scientific method
Line graphs are used when continuous data is being represented (e.g. length,
mass, time, pH and volume).
When there is a trend between the variables, a line of best fit is drawn. This may
be a straight line or a smooth curve.
1.2 Scientific method
Bar or column graphs are used to graph discrete data. Data is represented by
rectangles of equal width, with spaces between them. The length of each
rectangle indicates the quantity, and so the various quantities can be compared
easily.
Rectangles are drawn horizontally for a bar graph and vertically for a column
graph.
1.2 Scientific method
Histograms are often used to show frequencies, which is how often a particular
value or characteristic occurs. They have columns to represent the frequency.
The columns are of equal width, but there is no space between them. Histograms
are used particularly where the data has been grouped into categories to make it
more manageable.
1.2 Scientific method
Interpreting the data
After all the data is collected, the scientist can make an interpretation of the
results. Data from a well-designed experiment will either support or disprove the
hypothesis. If the hypothesis is disproved, the scientist must make a new one or
modify the original hypothesis. If the scientist concludes that the hypothesis is
supported, they communicate the conclusion to others in a report with details of
the experiments and the data collected.
Eventually, if enough supporting evidence is collected and there is no evidence
against the hypothesis, then the hypothesis will become a theory.
1.2 Scientific method
Evaluating the experiment
Scientists should reflect on the results and the method, in particular:
• The validity of the method, and therefore of the conclusion: a valid method will
fairly test the hypothesis so that the only factor that affects the results is the
independent variable.
• The accuracy of the results: this refers to how correct or true the
measurements are.
• The reliability of the results: this refers to how similar the results for trials of the
same test are. We are able to identify reliable results by conducting multiple trials
and comparing the measurements
1.2 Scientific method
Experimental error
There are three possible types of error that may occur in an experiment:
• A human error is a mistake – e.g. incorrectly reading the scale on an
instrument. Human errors are not part of experimental error. They should be
avoidable with sufficient care and checking.
• Random errors are unpredictable errors that can occur in all experiments.
They occur because no measurement can be made with absolute precision, e.g.
when using a stopwatch. The impact of the error can be reduced by taking
several measurements and averaging them.
• Systematic errors occur because of the way in which an experiment is
designed or due to problems with equipment. In this case, a measurement will
always be too high or too low. Systematic errors cannot be reduced by
averaging; the only solution is to change the experimental procedure or
equipment.
1.3 Investigating humans
Ethical problems
Ethics are a set of moral principles or values; ethical behaviour is behaviour
that conforms to those principles or values. In scientific research, particularly with
human participants, many ethical issues arise.
Five principles of an ethically sound investigation include:
Voluntary participation
Informed consent
Risk of harm (should be minimised and the benefit assessed)
Confidentiality
Anonymity
1.3 Investigating humans
Placebos
Placebos are used in research into the effectiveness of medical treatments, such
as a new medicinal drug. In the case of a drug trial, a placebo is an inactive
substance that looks like the real medication.
One group of subjects, the experimental group, takes the drug that is being
tested and the other group, the control, takes the placebo.
Patients who are given a placebo often show an improvement in their condition
even though the placebo is inactive, called the placebo effect.
To reduce this effect, researchers conduct blind experiments where the
subjects do not know whether they are receiving the placebo or the treatment. In
a double-blind experiment, neither the researcher nor the subjects know who is
receiving the treatment or the placebo.