WEEK: 1

NETWORKING

OBJECTIVES:
• DEFINITION
• TYPES OF NETWORKS
• NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
• FLOW DIAGRAM FOR EACH NETWORK TOPOLOGY
 INTRO
In our world today, there are various kinds of networks. For instance students
in a particular class can form a group(network). Members of a particular
organization can be termed to be a network. When a group of people agree
to collaborate for certain benefits/purposes, definitely they form a network.
Likewise, we have network in the world of computers, which is a collection
of computers and devices interconnected by communications channels that
facilitate communications and allows sharing of resources and information. A
network consists of computers, called nodes or stations.
Networking is basically the process of establishing a network, that is,
connecting computers, electronic and associated devices together by
communication channels and networking devices for the purpose of resource
sharing and collaboration.
 TYPES OF NETWORK

• Local Area Network (LAN): which is usually a small network constrained to a small
geographic area. An example of a LAN would be a computer network within a building.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): is used for medium-sized area such as city or a state.
• Wide Area Network (WAN): is a network covering a large geographic area. It is
a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network whose communications
links across metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries).
This is in contrast with (PANs), (LANs), (CANs), or (MANs) which are usually limited to a
room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area (e.g., a city) respectively. The largest
WAN in existence is the Internet.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LAN AND WAN
LAN WAN
LAN speed is quite high. WAN speed is lower than that of LAN.
LAN has low congestion as compared to WAN. WAN has higher congestion than LAN
Designing and maintaining LAN is easy and Designing and maintaining WAN is
less costly than WAN. complex and more costly than LAN.

Local Area Networks (LANs) are more reliable WAN networks are less reliable and secure.
and secure
Local Area Network (LAN) has higher Wide Area Networks (WAN) has lower
bandwidth rates. bandwidth rates
LAN is often owned by private organizations. WAN ownership can be private or public.
 Types of LAN Technologies
Ethernet
It is a system for connecting a number of computer systems to form a local area network,
with protocols to control the passing of information and to avoid simultaneous
transmission by two or more systems.
Token Ring
It is a network architecture that uses a ring network topology and a token passing strategy
to control access to the network. A token is simply a bit pattern. Only a node can transmit
at a time. The node that grabs the token as it circulates has the right to transmit.
ARCNET (Attached Resource Computer network)
It uses a token-bus scheme for managing line sharing among the workstations and other
devices connected on the LAN. ARCnet is one of the oldest, simplest, and least expensive
types of local-area network.
BENEFITS OF COMPUTER NETWORKING
• Resource sharing
• Easy collaboration
• Easy Communication
• Network Gaming
• Saves cost
Network Topology
Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements
(links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network. Essentially, it is the
topological structure of a network and may be depicted physically
or logically.
BUS TOPOLOGY
The bus topology is composed of a single link connected to many
computers. It is also known as linear topology because computers are
connected to each other using a single cable called Trunk or Backbone.
This is a kind of LAN in which all computers on this common connection
receive all signals transmitted by any attached computer. It has
terminators at both ends that helps to prevent signals from bouncing
back in a network.
RING TOPOLOGY
All computers in this network are connected
in a ring or closed loop, that is, each node
or computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to
the first. Data being transmitted passes
through each computer until it gets to the
recipient computer. Hence, a failure in any
cable or computer breaks the loop and
leads to network failure.
STAR TOPOLOGY
All nodes are connected to a
central connection point such as a
hub or switch. The devices are
connected using twisted pair
cables. All information must pass
through the central point.
Therefore, if the central point
becomes faulty, the network fails.
Mesh Topology
In this topology, each node is connected to an arbitrary number of
neighbours in such a way that there is at least one traversal from one
node to any other. Here, each computer (node) is connected
individually to another system. If one link fails, the other will be used.
Exercise
1. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of bus topology.
2. Differentiate logical topology from physical topology.
3. List five differences between LAN and WAN.
4. Define computer network.
5. Define the following: i. Node ii. Server iii. Network OS
Week: 2

Network Devices/Components
They are pieces of hardware used to connect nodes in a network.
The following are examples of network devices:
• Network Interface Card (NIC)
• Hub
• Switch
• MODEM (Modulator Demodulator)
• Router
 Network Devices

• Network Interface Card (NIC): is a computer

hardware component designed to allow
computers to communicate over a computer
network. It has an Ethernet port to which a
network cable can be connected. A wireless NIC
does not have a cable port. Rather, it uses an
antenna to send and receive data in form of
radio signals.
Network
Devices
• Hub
An hub is the most basic networking device
that connects multiple computers or other
network devices together. A network hub has
no routing tables or intelligence on where to
send information but broadcasts all network
data across each connection. But, since the
data contains the address of the recipient
computer, other computers discard the data.
Hence, hubs are considered inefficient in data
transmission since only one computer can
transmit data at a given time else data collision
will occur.
 Network Devices

• Switch: A network switch is a

computer networking device that
connects devices together on a
computer network. It is more
intelligent than a hub because it has
a routing table that contains the
address of each computer on the
network. Hence, it forwards the data
directly to the intended recipient
only, unlike hub that broadcasts data
to all the computers on the network.
Network Devices

MODEM (Modulator Demodulator):

A modem is a device that enables a
computer to transmit data over, for
example, telephone or cable lines.
Computer information is stored
digitally, whereas information
transmitted over telephone lines is
transmitted in the form of analog
waves. A modem converts between
these two forms; i.e. digital and
analog.
Network Devices

Router: A router is a specialised intelligent

device that serves as a gateway through
which data can be passed from one network
to the other. It is a gateway used in computer
networks to connect networks that are
dissimilar and that work on different
protocols. A router is used to interconnect at
least two or more networks (LANs or WANs).
It is a device that forwards data packets along
networks.
CABLE
It is an insulated wire or wires having a protective casing and used for
transmitting electricity or telecommunication signals. Computer cables are
used to connect monitors, keyboards, printers, hard drives, and other
peripherals to computers.
Network Cables and
Connectors
Coaxial cable: is a type of cable
that has an inner conductor
surrounded by a tubular
insulating layer, surrounded by a
tubular conducting shield. It is
used as a transmission medium in
computer networks, in
distributing TV signals in cable TV
networks and for connecting
radio transmitters and receivers
with antenna.
 Twisted Pair Network Cable
A twisted pair cable is a type of cable made
by putting two separate insulated wires
together in a twisted pattern and running
them parallel to each other. The purpose of
twisting is to reduce crosstalk between the
wires and to cancel out any external
electromagnetic interference. This type of
cable is widely used in different kinds of data
and voice infrastructures. Two different types
of twisted pair cable, unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP) are
used in different kinds of installations. UTP is
common in Ethernet installations, examples
are CAT 5, CAT 6, etc.
Fiber Optic Cable: is a network cable
that contains strands of glass fibers
that transmits data in the form of
light pulses. They are designed for
long distance and very high
bandwidth network communications.
They are not affected by
electromagnetic interference.

Telephone Network cable: is used for

connecting the old analog telephone
to a wall socket. It has an RJ-11
connector, and consists of twisted
pairs of wire, similar to a UTP.
 Network Connectors
1. Registered Jack-45 (RJ-45): this is the standard connector for UTP cables used on
computer networks. It plugs into the Ethernet port of a network device such as a
computer, switch, hub, etc.
2. Registered Jack (RJ-11): Standard telephone cable connectors, RJ-11 has 4 wires (and RJ-
12 has 6 wires). It is a four- or six-wire connector primarily used to connect telephone
equipment.
3. T-connector: this is used along with coaxial cables on computer networks.
4. F connector is a type of RF connector commonly used for cable and universally for
satellite television.
5. Fiber LC (Local Connector) These connectors are used for single-mode and multimode
fiber-
optic cables. FC connectors feature a position locatable notch and a threaded receptacle.
6. MT-RJ (Mechanical Transfer Registered Jack) connectors are used with single-mode and
multimode fiber-optic cables.
 Computer Cables and Connectors
There are two main types of computer cables: data cable and power cable.
Data cable: is a cable that provides communication between peripheral devices and system
unit. Examples of data cables include the following:
• Printer cable: it can be parallel or USB cable.
• Monitor cable: used to connect a monitor to the VGA port on the system unit.
• Universal Serial Bus (USB) cable: the most recent and most common. It is used connect most
peripheral devices to any USB port on the system unit.
• Serial cable: old keyboards, mice and modems are examples of devices that use serial
connection.
• Type C cable:
Power cable: is used to connect a computer or device to a source of power. The power cable
of a laptop has a power pack which converts alternating current to direct current. The cord
that connects the system unit or printer to the mains is an example of power cable.
Connectors
A connector is that part of a cable that plugs into a port, in order to
establish a physical connection. There are male and female connectors.
1. Male Connector: it has pins, and is referred to as a plug. Typical
example is the male VGA connector on the monitor cable.
2. Female connector: a female connector has holes, into which male
connector pins can plug in. An example is the female VGA connector
on the system unit.
Test
• What is a computer network?
• Describe two main types of network
• Highlight two benefits of network.
• Describe bus topology.
• Differentiate hub from switch.
• State two types of twisted pair cable.
• List three network cables and connectors.
• State the meaning of the following:
i. ARCnet
ii. NIC
iii. MODEM
Week: 3

THE INTERNET

When two or more computers are connected together to

share resources, the connection is called a Computer Network.
A connection of LANs in different geographical locations is
Wide Area network (WAN). The internet is an interconnection
of different WANs. These connections may be through public
networks like phones, or private networks or through satellite.
The internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible series of
interconnected computer networks that transmit data by
packet switching using the standard internet protocols –
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
History of the Internet
The origin of the internet dates back to research commissioned by the US
federal government in the 1960s to build efficient and effective
communication via computer networks. This research was funded by the
ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECTS AGENCY (ARPA).
In 1969, ARPA(Advanced Research Projects Agency) started a resourcing
computer network for Department of Defence (DoD). That network was
known as the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network). This
project was necessitated by the need to ensure communication over long
distances in the event of a nuclear war, in case machines are destroyed in a
particular location, there will still be communication amongst the remaining
ones. Soon after the establishment of the ARPANET, people recognised its
ability to facilitate scientific research.
 History of the Internet
cont’d
As a result, four American universities joined the ARPANET by December
1969.
From 1970s, ARPANET started to use Internet Protocol (IP) as a means of
communication among computers. As a result, more computers were
connected, it continued to grow and soon became difficult to manage.
Consequently, MILNET (Military Network) was carved out of the ARPANET.
The internet as we know today came into being in 1983 when the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) standard was
accepted as the common communication standard of the internet. This
resulted in the development of the world wide web in 1991 by Tim
Berners-Lee and others at the European Laboratory for particle physics.
INTERNET TERMS

TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol is the suite of communication protocols that is
used to interconnect network devices on the Internet.
ISP: Internet Service Provider is a company or organization that provides access to the internet, hosts
data or both.
Internet Protocol: a set of rules governing the format of data sent over the Internet or other networks.
UPLOAD: this means to send data from a local system to a remote system such as a server or another
client
DOWNLOAD: this means to receive data from a remote system to a local system.
WEB BROWSER: it is a free software package that lets you view web pages, graphics and most online
contents.
IP ADDRESS: it is unique set of numbers assigned to a computing device that uses the Internet Protocol.
DNS: Domain Name System is a database of domain names and their corresponding IP addresses.
PACKET SWITCHING: this is a digital networking communication method that groups all transmitted
data into suitable sized blocks called packets.
BOOKMARK: is a saved link to a specific web page that allows you to quickly return to that
page without having to search for it again. Bookmarks are also known as favorites or
shortcuts.
BANDWIDTH: refers to the amount of data that can be transmitted over a network or
communication channel in a given amount of time. It is typically measured in bits per
second (bps) or bytes per second (Bps).
CIRCUIT SWITCHING: in this networking two network modes established dedicated
communication channel (circuit) through the network before the nodes may communicate.
INTRANET: This can be referred to as a network within an organization. It consists of linked
LANs and use leased lines in WANs.
EXTRANET: This is a network that is restricted in scope to a single body and also has limited
connectors to the networks of one or more organizations.
HTML stands for HyperText Markup Language, a markup language used to create web
pages. HTML defines the structure and content of a web page using a series of tags and
attributes .
Week: 4

INTERNET BROWSERS

A browser is a software application used to locate and view Web pages.

For people to browse or navigate through web pages on the World Wide
Web, they require a browser. It is an interactive program that requests,
retrieves and displays pages from the World Wide Web.
There are many types of Web browsers available, but the first browser is
worldwideweb developed by Tim Berners Lee in 1990. It was later called
Nexus. Lynx a texted-based browser that couldn’t display any graphic
content was developed in 1992. Marc Andreessen and his team developed
the first graphical browser in 1993 called Mosaic (later Netscape). In 1994
IBM presented its own browser called Web Explorer. Netscape was one of
the first commercial browsers on the scene and dominated the browser
market until Microsoft released Internet Explorer 1.0 in august 1995.
Examples Of Internet
Browser
• Microsoft Edge
• Mozilla Firefox
• Google Chrome
• Opera
• Torch
• Safari
• Netscape Navigator
• Etc.
Browser Features
• Address bar/field
• Title bar
• Menu bar
• Scroll bars
• Status bar
• Display window
• Sizing buttons
• Back and Forward button
• Security Indicators

Browser interface
 INTERNET SERVICES (Protocol)
The following are services available on the Internet:
World Wide Web
When we think of the Internet we often think only of the World Wide Web.
The Web is one of several ways to retrieve information from the Internet.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
It allows users to move files from one computer to another. Using the FTP
program, a user can logon to a remote computer, browse through its files,
and either download or upload files (if the remote computer allows).
Telnet
it is a network protocol used on the Internet to provide two-way directional
text oriented communication using a virtual terminal connection.
INTERNET SERVICES

Usenet
Usenet is something like a bulletin board or an email list without
subscription. Anyone can post a message to or browse through a Usenet
newsgroup.
Email
The electronic transmission of letters and messages. It allows asynchronous
communication.
IRC (Internet Relay Chat)
This protocol allows for synchronous communication: users on different
computers anywhere in the world can communicate in "real time" or
simultaneously. You can instantly see a response to a typed message by
several people at the same time.
Week: 5

World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web is a collection of information stored on computers that are
connected to the Internet all over the world. The information can be text, graphics,
audio and video. It uses hyperlinks to link materials together, where these links are
text-based, they are called hypertext.
The World Wide Web, or 'Web' for short, is digital content served through the
Internet's hardware. The Web is not the same as the Internet rather it is one of the
services available on the Internet. It is viewed or accessed with a web browser
software. The underlying protocol used by the WWW is Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP) while the authoring language used to create documents on the WWW is
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).
Brief history of the World Wide Web

The development of this innovation is attributed to Tim Berners-Lee, a

researcher at the European Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN)
Switzerland.
In 1980 he built ENQUIRE, which is a database of people and software
models, which made use of hypertext i.e. each new page of information
had to be linked to an existing page.
He invented the world wide web in March 1989 and wrote the first web
page editor/browser (WorldWideWeb) and web server in 1990.
The Web became a publicly available service on the Internet in august
6, 1991.
It was quickly embraced by the public and has become the most
popular way to provide and obtain information from the Internet.
 WWW Basic Terms
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): underlying protocol used by the www.
HyperText Markup Language (HTML ): the authoring language used to
create documents on the www.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL): is the location or address of a resource
on the Internet.
Web Page: is a document on the WWW. Every web page is identified by a
unique URL.
Website: is a collection of related web pages. It is a location on the www.
Home Page: Each website contains a home page, which is the first
document users see when they visit the site. It is the main page of a web
site.
Domain name: is a unique name that identifies a website. It is usually
separated by a dot. For example: [Link]
Search engines: a software used to look for information on the Internet.
A site on the WWW that uses such software to locate key words in
other sites.
Hyperlink: a link that direct access from one document to another.
Hypertext: is a text-based system that allows users to navigate between
related pieces of information by clicking on hyperlinks.
Hypermedia: is hypertext that includes graphics, video and sound.
BENEFITS OF WWW
World Wide Web (WWW) is a network of interlinked documents found
online. World Wide Web has directly impacted business processes in the
past few years and has shown endless possibilities.
1. Creates a presence
2. Networking
3. Exchange of business information
4. It is convenient
5. Improves availability
6. Instant communication
Assignm
ent
Briefly describe the following:
• Packet
• Protocol
• Host
• Node
• Intranet
• Extranet
• Differentiate between Packet switching and Circuit Switching
• Advantages and disadvantages of bus topology, star topology, ring
topology.
Week: 6 ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-
MAIL)
Electronic mail (E-mail) was one of the first uses of the Internet and
is still the most popular in use. A large percentage of the total traffic
over the Internet is e-mail. Like the WWW and others, e-mail is a
type of internet service.
Electronic mail is a method of exchanging digital messages over
telecommunication systems. E-mail messages are usually encoded in
ASCII (American Standard Code For Information Interchange) text.
However, you can also send non-text files, such as graphic images
and sound files, as attachments sent in binary streams.
A popular protocol for sending e-mail is Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP) while the protocols for receiving/retrieving e-mail
are Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) and Internet Message
Access Protocol (IMAP).
BRIEF HISTORY
Email first entered substantial use in the 1960s and by the 1970s had taken the
form now recognised as email. Email is much older than ARPANet or the Internet.
It was never invented; it evolved from very simple beginnings.

Probably the first email system of this type was MAILBOX, used at Massachusetts
Institute of Technology from 1965. Another early program to send messages on the
same computer was called SNDMSG.
Ray Tomlinson is credited with inventing email in 1972. He picked the @ symbol
from the computer keyboard to denote sending messages from one computer to
another. So then, for anyone using Internet standards, it was simply a matter of
nominating name-of-the-user@name-of-the-computer. In 1975 John Vittal
developed some software to organize email.
How to set up/create an E-mail
account
An e-mail account allows you to send and receive e-mail messages. The
following are the steps involved in creating an e-mail account
 Load your Internet browser
Type in the web address of any internet e-mail service provider e.g
[Link]
Click on “Sign Up” in the main page
Supply the data and click on “I Agree”. You receive confirmation and
an e-mail address.
Features of an E-mail address
There are three main features, namely:
• The username
• @ sign
• The domain
For instance, considering the address: oluoma2010@[Link].
oluoma2010 is the username, [Link] is the domain and the @ sign
in between.
 How to compose E-mail messages
• Open your e-mail program, launch a new message window by
clicking ‘New’ or ‘Compose’ option to compose your message.
• Type in the address of the recipient(s) and the subject or title of
your mail.
• Type your letter/message in the message box.
•Click ‘send’ to send your mail.
Checking E-mail
To check mail in your inbox, do the following:
• Log on to your e-mail program,
• Click on check mail and click on inbox.
• Click or double click to open mail.
Differences between Email address and Websites address
• Web address is the URL of your web page while Email is used to send electronic messages to
each other using computer networks.
• In the Email @ is used and you can never find it in any web address.
• The email address is often used in lower case, while websites or web address are written in
mixed letters.
• With email you can always receives electronic mails while web address is not used to receive
any mails sent to you.
• A web address is used to access a website where you can get information while email is not used
to get any information.
TERMS
• Email servers accept, forward, deliver, and store messages. An e-mail
server is a computer within your network that works as your virtual
post office.
• Webmail (or web-based email) is any email client implemented as a
web application running on a web server.
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an Internet standard for
electronic mail transmission.
• Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is an Internet standard
protocol used by e-mail clients to retrieve e-mail messages from a
mail server over a TCP/IP connection.
• Post Office Protocol (POP) is an Internet standard protocol used by
local e-mail clients to retrieve e-mail from a remote server over a
TCP/IP connection.
Exercises
• Problems associated with E-mails
• What is chatting?
• Differentiate synchronous from asynchronous communication
• What is voice mail?
• Compare and contrast IMAP and POP3
Test
1a. Differentiate the WWW from the Internet.
b. List 4 Internet services.
2a. Define Internet bowser.
b. Differentiate browser from search engine.
c. List 2 browser features.
3a. Highlight LAN technologies
b. Describe star topology.
4. Write the meaning of the following acronyms.
(i) FTP (ii) IRC (iii) NIC (iv) HTML.
Week: 7
SECURITY AND ETHICS
In the computer industry, the term security refers to techniques for
ensuring that data stored in a computer cannot be read or compromised
by any individuals without authorization. Most computer security
measures involve data encryption and passwords. Data encryption is the
translation of data into a form that is unintelligible without a deciphering
mechanism. A password is a secret word or phrase that gives a user
access to a particular program or system.
Computer security refers to all the measures that are taken to protect a
computer facility such as the physical machine, data and information,
network, etc. from unauthorized access.
Sources Of security Breach
There are many factors that causes security breaches in a computer network;
such as:
• Malicious software (Malware): A common trick used by hackers is to plant
malware in software and then plant this software on a website. Examples of
malware are Viruses and Trojans.
• Carelessness: Inability to keep login details secret can cause a breach in
security.
• Poorly implemented network: any network that is not adequately secured can
easily be invaded/accessed by unauthorised users.
• Computer hackers: Hackers pose a great threat to data and information and
are always attempting to gain access.
• Someone that knows you or from within the company or organisation can spy
your login details, and later on attack your system.
• Direct attack: someone can plug in a USB drive with malware on your
computer and physically infects your system.
Preventive Measures
The following are the ways in which computer and computers network can be
protected from attacks:
• Use sites with web certificate.
• Use licensed software.
• Install anti-virus software and ensure a regular update.
• Use of Firewall: Firewall is a network mechanism or set of devices intended
to authorize or deny network transmission, based upon a set of rules.
• Exercising care in opening e-mails.
• Fire extinguishers for fire sensitive areas like server rooms and security
rooms
• Never download files from an untrusted location.
• Always scan a file before opening or installing it.
 COMPUTER ETHICS
Computer ethics refer to the rules guiding how computer users work
with computers. It includes the codes of ethics and standards of good
practice that are observed by computer users within the profession.
• Do not use computer to harm other people.
• Do not use computers for stealing activities.
• Do not use other people’s computer resources without authorisation.
• Do not snoop around in other people’s computer files.
• Do not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
• In using computers for communication, be respectful and courteous
with the fellow members.
LEGAL ISSUES IN ICT
Legal issues in computer security and ethical related matters relate to all the matters
that constitute any action or situation that interferes with your rights to computer
usage and the position of the law in any such situation. There are laws that governs
how people interact with one another on the use of computer. Some common legal
issues includes:
 Piracy: It is a serious issue in ICT. You are not allowed to use any material without
permission, i.e. plagiarism.
 Hacking: It is an attempt to gain access into computer without authorisation. It is
another issue that is highly frowned at due to the immense damage that hackers
have caused.
 Computer fraud/Cybercrimes: These include all the crimes that are committed in
virtual space i.e. internet scams, identity theft, extortion, phishing.
 Copyright issue: This is a special license given to authors so as to protect
intellectual property.
 Week: 8

TOPIC: LOGIC GATES

A gate can keep you out or lets you into a place. In the same way, a microscopic logic
gate is a barrier in an electronic circuit that can let electricity through or stop it
flowing altogether. A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit with
binary conditions i.e. low(0) or high(1) which is a representation of different voltage
levels. A circuit is a discrete (specific) path between two or more points along which
signals can be carried.
A logic gate is simply a logical circuit with one or more inputs and an output. It
receives two incoming electric currents, compares them, and sends on a new,
outgoing electric current depending on what it finds. There are quite a few different
types of logic gate, the most common of which are AND, OR, NOT, XOR (Exclusive Or),
NAND (NOT AND), and NOR (NOT OR).
 STANDARD LOGIC GATES
In a logic function, there are three basic operations: NOT (also called inversion or negation and
symbolized -), OR (also called disjunction or addition and symbolized +), and AND (also called
conjunction or multiplication and symbolized *). OR, AND and NOT gates are referred to as
standard logic gates.
AND Gate
It has two or more inputs and one output. For a 2-input AND gate, the output Q is true if both
input A “AND” input B are both true else it is false, giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = A.B ).
Truth Table
Logic diagram A B Q=AB
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Read as A AND B gives
Q

Note that the Boolean Expression for a two input AND gate can be written as: A.B or just simply
AB without the decimal point.
OR Gate
Like the AND gate, it has two or more inputs and one output. For a 2-input
OR gate, the output Q is true if either input A “OR” input B is true
“OR” both are true, giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = A or B ).

Truth Table
A B Q= A+B
Logic diagram 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Read as A OR B gives Q

The Boolean Expression for a two input OR gate is written as: A+B.
NOT Gate/Inverter
For a single input NOT gate, the output is true when the input is
“NOT” true, the output is the inverse or complement of the input
giving the boolean expression ( A = NOT A or Ā).

Logic diagram Truth Table

A Ā
Ā 0 1
1 0
Read as inversion of A
Truth Table
A logic gate truth table shows the truth value or output of every possible
combination of inputs in a logic gate.
Such a table typically contains several rows and columns, with the top row
representing the logical variables and combinations, in increasing complexity
leading up to the final function.
 Week: 9

Alternative Logic Gates

A logic gate is an idealized or physical device that performs a logical
operation on one or more logical inputs, and produces a single logical
output. Recall that the standard logic gates are AND, OR and NOT gates.
Alternative logic gates are generated when two gates are combined
together. For instance, NOT and AND gates when combined produce
NAND gate.
Types Of Alternative Logic Gates
The three types of alternative logic gates are:
NOR, NAND and XOR (exclusive OR) gates.
NOR gate
The NOR gate is a combination of OR gate followed by an inverter (NOT
gate). Its output is "true" if both inputs are "false“, otherwise, the
output is "false“.
Logic diagram Truth Table
A B A+B A+B
A
A+B 0 0 0 1
B 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
NAND gate
The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. It acts in the
manner of the logical operation "and" followed by negation. The output is "false" if
both inputs are "true“, otherwise, the output is "true.“
Logic diagram Truth Table

A A B A.B A.B
A.B
B 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
XOR (exclusive OR) gate
The XOR ( exclusive-OR ) gate acts in the same way as the logical
"either/or“. The output is "true" if either, but not both, of the inputs are
"true“. The output is "false" if both inputs are "false" or if both inputs
are "true“. Another way of looking at this circuit is to observe that the
output is 1 if the inputs are different, but 0 if the inputs are the same.
Logic Diagram Truth Table
A B A+B
A 0 0 0

B A+B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Uses of Logic Gates
• Logic gates are used to build both digital and complex integrated circuits. NAND
gate can be used to create an entire processor because of its functional
completeness.
• All digital products like computers, mobile phones, calculators, digital watches
contain logic gates.
• Used in safety thermostat
• Freezer warning buzzer
• It is used in constructing burglar alarms
• It is used in construction of simple comparator
• It is used in traffic light controller
• It is used in constructing ALU.
• It is used as a decision making tool.
Boolean Algebra
An alternative to the truth table is the use of Boolean theorems. This method, is
used by engineers to find the simplest possible circuit that will perform a desired
logic function. This optimizes system efficiency by minimizing the number of
operations that must be performed to accomplish a given task. It was developed
by George Boole.
Example: Given the Boolean algebra Q = (AB)+(A+B), draw the circuit diagram.
Solution
 Assignment
Do the exercises 1-3 in page 23 of New computer
studies textbook for SS 2.