PARTICLE

ACCELERATORS
CYCLOTRON, VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATORS
Index
[Link] Content Page no01 Acknowledgement 0202 Particle Accelerators 0303
Facts about Particle
Accelerators
1104 Bibliography
Acknowledgement
The success and final outcome of this project required a lotof guidance and
assistance from many people and I amextremely privileged to have got this all
along thecompletion of my project. All that I have done is only dueto such
supervision and assistance and I would not forgetto thank them. I would like to
express my special thanks of gratitude tomy teacher Alagesan Apparaju as well as
our principal M. Poovanan who gave me the golden opportunity to do
thiswonderful project on the topic Particle Accelerators -Anew way to understand
Physics, which also helped me indoing a lot of Research and I came to know
about so manynew things I am really thankful to them. Secondly, I would also like
to thank my parents and friendswho helped me a lot in finalizing this project within
the limited time frame.
 Particle Accelerators

A particle accelerator is a machine that uses electromagnetic fields topropel

charged particles to nearly light speed and to contain them in well-defined
[Link] accelerators are used in particle physics as colliders or
assynchrotron light sources for the study of condensed matter [Link]
particle accelerators are used in a wide variety ofapplications, including particle
therapy for oncological purposes,radioisotope production for medical diagnostics,
ion implanters formanufacture of semiconductors, and accelerator mass
spectrometersfor measurements of rare isotopes such as [Link] are
two basic classes of accelerators:
1. Electrostatic and,[Link] (or electromagnetic) accelerators
Electrostatic Accelerators
Electrostatic accelerators use static electric fields to accelerateparticles. A small-
scale example of this class is the cathode ray tubein an ordinary old television set.
The first accelerators used simple technology of a single static high voltage to
accelerate charged particles. The charged particle wasaccelerated through an
evacuated tube with an electrode at eitherend, with thestatic potential across it.
Since the particle passed onlyonce through thepotential difference, the output
energy was limitedto the accelerating voltage of themachine. While this method is
stillextremely popular today, with the electrostaticaccelerators greatlyout-
numbering any other type, they are more suited to lower energy
studies owing to the practical voltage limit of about 1 MV for airinsulated machines, or 30 MV when the accelerator is operated in atank of
pressurized gas with highdielectric strength, such as [Link] two main types of electrostatic accelerator are the Cockcroft- Walton
accelerator, whichuses a diode-capacitor voltage multiplierto produce high voltage, and the Van de Graaff accelerator, whichuses a moving fabric
belt to carry charge to the high voltage electrode. Although electrostatic accelerators accelerate particles along astraight line, the term linear
accelerator is more often used foraccelerators that employ oscillating rather than static electric fields.
(a). Cockcroft-Walton accelerator:
The Cockcroft–Walton (CW) generator, or multiplier, is anelectric circuit that generates a high DC voltage from a low- voltage AC or pulsing DC
input.

It was named after the British and Irish physicists John DouglasCockcroft and Ernest Thomas Sinton Walton, who in 1932 usedthis circuit design
to power their particle accelerator,performing the first artificial nuclear disintegration in [Link]–Walton circuits are still used in particle
[Link] also are used in everyday electronic devices that requirehigh voltages, such as X-ray machines, televisionsets,microwave
ovens and photocopiers.
It`s Design:
It is made up of a voltage multiplier ladder network of capacitorsand diodes to generate high voltages. Unlike transformers, thismethod eliminates
the requirement for the heavy core and the bulk of insulation/potting required. Using only capacitors anddiodes, these voltage multipliers can step
up relatively low voltages to extremely high values, while at the same time beingfar lighter and cheaper than transformers. The biggest
advantage of such circuits is that the voltage across each stageof the cascade is equal to only twice
the peak input voltage in ahalf-wave rectifier. In a full-wave rectifier it is three times theinput voltage.
It has the advantage of requiring relatively low-cost components and being easy to insulate. One can
also tapthe output from any stage, like in a multi tapped transformer.
Thiscircuit can be extended to any number of stages. The output voltage is twice the peak input
voltage multiplied by the numberof stages N or equivalentlythe peak-to-peak input voltage
swing(Vpp) times the number of stagesThe number of stages is equal to the number of capacitors
inseries between the output and ground.
(b) Van de Graaff accelerator:
A Van de Graaff generator is an electrostatic generator whichuses a moving belt to accumulate
electric charge on a hollowmetal globe on the top of an insulated column, creating veryhigh electric
potentials. It produces very high voltage directcurrent (DC) electricity at low current levels
The Van de Graaff generator was developed as a particleaccelerator for physics research, its high
potential is used toaccelerate subatomic particles to great speeds in an evacuatedtube. It was the
most powerful type of accelerator of the 1930suntil the cyclotron was developed. Van de Graaff
generators arestill used as accelerators to generate energetic particle and x-ray beams for nuclear
research and nuclear medicine
By the principle illustrated in the Faraday ice pail experiment,i.e. by Gauss's law, the excess positive
charge is accumulated onthe outer surface ofthe outer shell (1), leaving no field inside theshell.
Electrostatic induction by this method continues, buildingup very large amounts of charge on the
[Link] the example, the wand with metal sphere (8) is connected toground, as is the lower comb
(7); electrons are drawn up fromground due to the attraction by the positive sphere, and whenthe
electric field is great enough (see below) the air breaks in theform of an electrical discharge spark
(9). Since the material ofthe belt and rollers can be selected, the accumulated charge onthe hollow
metal sphere can either be made positive (electrondeficient) or negative (excess electrons)
Electrodynamic accelerators
Electrodynamic or electromagnetic accelerators, use changingelectromagnetic fields (either
magnetic induction or oscillating radiofrequency fields) to accelerate particles. Since in these
types theparticles can pass through the same accelerating field multiple times,the output
energy is not limited by the strength of the acceleratingfield. This technique was also the
basis of modern [Link] first operational linear particle accelerator was,
the betatron and the cyclotron.
The Betatron:
A betatron is a type of cyclic particle accelerator. It isessentially a transformer with a torus-
shaped vacuum tubeas its secondary coil. An alternating current in the primarycoils
accelerates electrons in the vacuum around a circularpath. The betatron was the first machine
capable ofproducing electron beams at energies higher then could be achieved with a simple
electron gun
A cyclotron accelerates a charged particle beam using ahigh frequency alternating voltage which is applied between two
hollow "D"-shaped sheet metal electrodescalled "dees" inside a vacuum chamber. The dees areplaced face to face with
a narrow gap between them,creating a cylindrical space within them for the particles tomove. The particles are injected
into the center of thisspace. The dees are located between the poles of a largeelectromagnet which applies a static
magnetic field Bperpendicular to the electrode plane. The magnetic fieldcauses the particles' path to bend in a circle due
to theLorentz force perpendicular to their direction of [Link] the particles' speeds were constant, they would travel ina
circular path within the dees under the influence of themagnetic field. However, a radio frequency (RF)alternating voltage
of several thousand volts is applied between the dees. The frequency is set so that the particlesmake one circuit during a
single cycle of the voltage. Toachieve this, the frequency must matchparticle'scyclotronresonance frequency
Where,B the magnetic field strength
q is the electric charge of the particle, andm is the relativistic mass of the charged [Link] the particles are
accelerated by the voltage manytimes, the final energy of the particles is not dependent onthe accelerating voltage but
on the strength of themagnetic field and the diameter of the acceleratingchamber, the dees. Cyclotrons can only
accelerate particles speeds much slower than the speed of light,nonrelativistic speeds. For nonrelativistic particles,
thecentripetal forceFc required to keep them in their curved path is