Oda Bultum University

Institute of Technology
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

5th year second semester

Course: Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Prep by: Ahmed A. (Lecturer at OBUiT)

 CHAPTER 4
Antenna Analysis
 Plot the Impedance and S Parameter of the antenna based on the
specified Frequency Range in Hz. And can visualize the Current
distribution on the antenna based on the specified Frequency in Hz.
 Two methods that in the last three decades have been preeminent in the
analysis of many previously intractable antenna problems are the
Integral Equation (IE) method and the Geometrical Theory of
Diffraction (GTD).
 Cont……
The Integral Equation method casts the solution to the antenna problem in the
form of an integral (hence its name) where the unknown, usually the induced
current density, is part of the integrand.
 Numerical techniques, such as the Moment Method (MM), are then used to solve
for the unknown. Once the current density is found, the radiation integrals are
used to find the fields radiated and other systems parameters.
This method is most convenient for wire-type antennas and more efficient for
structures that are small electrically. One of the first objectives of this method is
to formulate the IE for the problem at hand.
 Cont……
In general, there are two type of IE’s.
 One is the Electric Field Integral Equation (EFIE), and it is based on
the boundary condition of the total tangential electric field.
 The other is the Magnetic Field Integral Equation (MFIE), and it is
based on the boundary condition that expresses the total electric current
density induced on the surface in terms of the incident magnetic field.
 Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions
INTRODUCTION

In the analysis of radiation problems, the usual procedure is to specify the
sources and then require the fields radiated by the sources.
It is a very common practice in the analysis procedure to introduce auxiliary
functions, known as vector potentials, which will aid in the solution of the
problems. The most common vector potential functions are the

1. A (magnetic vector potential) and

2. F (electric vector potential).
 Cont…..
Although the electric and magnetic field intensities (E and H) represent
physically measurable quantities, among most engineers the potentials are
strictly mathematical tools.
It is possible to determine the E and H fields directly from the source-current
densities J and M, as shown in Figure.1, it is usually much simpler to find the
auxiliary potential functions first and then determine the E and H. This two-step
procedure is also shown in Figure.1.
Cont…..
 Cont…..
The integration in the one-step procedure also requires that its limits be determined by the
bounds of the sources. The vector Hertz potential is analogous to A and is analogous to F.
The functional relation between them is a proportionality constant which is a function of the
frequency and the constitutive parameters of the medium.

Figure.1 Block diagram for computing fields radiated by electric and magnetic sources.
 Cont……

Figure.2 Coordinate systems for computing fields radiated by sources.

 THE VECTOR POTENTIAL A FOR AN ELECTRIC CURRENT SOURCE J

The vector potential A is useful in solving for the EM field generated by a given
harmonic electric current J.
The magnetic flux B is always solenoidal; that is, ∇ · B = 0. Therefore, it can be
represented as the curl of another vector because it obeys the vector identity

where A is an arbitrary vector. Thus we define BA = µHA = ∇ × A or

where subscript A indicates the field due to the A potential. Substituting into
Maxwell’s curl equation
 Cont……

The scalar function represents an arbitrary electric scalar potential which is a

function of position.
 Cont……
Taking the curl of both sides and using the vector identity

For a homogeneous medium, reduces to

Equating Maxwell’s equation

This leads to

substitute into
 Cont…….
In ,the curl of A was defined. Now we are at liberty to define the
divergence of A, which is independent of its curl.
In order to simplify, let

which is known as the Lorentz condition.

Substituting into
 Cont……
In addition reduces to

THE VECTOR POTENTIAL F FOR A MAGNETIC

CURRENT SOURCE M
 Cont…….

where φm represents an arbitrary magnetic scalar potential which is a function of

position.
and equating it to Maxwell’s equation

leads to
 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS FOR ELECTRIC (J) AND MAGNETIC (M) CURRENT SOURCES

The procedure requires that the auxiliary potential functions A and F generated,
respectively, by J and M are found first. In turn, the corresponding electric and
magnetic fields are then determined (EA, HA due to A and EF , HF due to F).
The total fields are then obtained by the superposition of the individual fields due
to A and F (J and M). In summary form, the procedure that can be used to find the
fields is as follows:
 Cont…..
Summary

1. Specify J and M (electric and magnetic current density sources).

2. a. Find A (due to J) using

which is a solution of the inhomogeneous vector wave equation of

b. Find F (due to M) using

 Cont……
Which is a solution of the inhomogeneous vector wave equation of

In and

and R is the distance from any point in the source to the observation point.
In a latter section, we will demonstrate that

is a solution to as is to
 Cont……
3. a. Find HA using and EA using

EA can also be found using Maxwell’s equation of with J = 0.

b. Find EF using and HF using

HF can also be found using Maxwell’s equation of

with M = 0.
 Cont…….
4. The total fields are then determined by
 Cont……
Whether or

is used to find EA and or to find H F

depends largely upon the problem. In many instances one may be more complex
than the other or vice versa. In computing fields in the far-zone, it will be easier to
use for E A and for H F because,
as it will be shown, the second term in each expression becomes negligible in that
region.
 SOLUTION OF THE INHOMOGENEOUS VECTOR POTENTIAL WAVE EQUATION

In the previous section we indicated that the solution of the inhomogeneous vector
wave equation of is .

To derive it, let us assume that a source with current density J z, which in the limit is
an infinitesimal source, is placed at the origin of a x, y, z coordinate system, as
shown in Figure.2(a). Since the current density is directed along the z-axis (J z), only
an Az component will exist. Thus we can write as

At points removed from the source (Jz = 0), the wave equation reduces to
 Cont……
Since in the limit the source is a point, it requires that A z is not a function of
direction (θ and φ); in a spherical coordinate system, A z = Az(r) where r is the radial
distance. Thus can be written as
which when expanded reduces to

The partial derivative has been replaced by the ordinary derivative since A z is only
a function of the radial coordinate. The differential equation of
has two independent solutions
 Cont…….
Equation represents an outwardly (in the radial direction) traveling wave
and describes an inwardly traveling wave (assuming an time
variation). For this problem, the source is placed at the origin with the radiated
fields traveling in the outward radial direction.

Therefore, we choose the solution of , or

In the static case (ω = 0, k = 0), simplifies to

 Cont…..
which is a solution to the wave equation of ,,

, when k = 0.

Thus at points removed from the source, the time-varying and the static solutions of

and differ only by the factor; or the time-varying solution

of can be obtained by multiplying the static solution of by

. In the presence of the source (Jz 0) and k = 0,

 Cont…..
This equation is recognized to be Poisson’s equation whose solution is widely
documented. The most familiar equation with Poisson’s form is that relating the
scalar electric potential φ to the electric charge density ρ. This is given by
whose solution is

where r is the distance from any point on the charge density to the observation
point. Since is similar in form to , its solution is similar to
, or
 Cont…..
Equation represents the solution to

when k = 0 (static case). Using the comparative analogy between

and , the time-varying solution of

can be obtained by multiplying the static solution o by . Thus

Which is a solution to . If the current densities were in the x- and y-

directions (Jx and Jy ), the wave equation for each would reduce to……..
 Cont……

with corresponding solutions similar in form to , or

 Cont…..
The solutions of ,

, and

allow us to write the solution to the vector wave equation of as

 Cont…..
If the source is removed from the origin and placed at a position represented by the
primed coordinates , as shown in Figure.2(b),

can be written as

where the primed coordinates represent the source, the unprimed the observation
point, and R the distance from any point on the source to the observation point. In a
similar fashion we can show that the solution of is given by
 Cont……
If J and M represent linear densities ,

and

reduce to surface integrals, or

 Cont…….
For electric and magnetic currents Ie and Im,

And reduce to line integrals of the form

 FAR-FIELD RADIATION
The fields radiated by antennas of finite dimensions are spherical waves. For these
radiators, a general solution to the vector wave equation of

in spherical components, each as a function of r, θ , φ, takes the general form of

The amplitude variations of r in each component of

are of the form , n = 1, 2,.... Neglecting higher order terms of ( = 0, n = 2,

3, . . .) reduces to
 Cont……
The r variations are separable from those of θ and φ.
Substituting

into

reduces it to

The radial E-field component has no 1/r terms, because its contributions from the
first and second terms of

cancel each other. Similarly, by using ,

 Cont……

we can write as

Where is the intrinsic impedance of the medium. Neglecting higher order

terms of , the radiated E- and H-fields have only θ and φ components. They can
be expressed as
 Cont…..
Radial field components exist only for higher order terms of
In a similar manner, the far-zone fields due to a magnetic source M (potential F)
can be written as
 ANALYSIS OF INFINITESIMAL DIPOLE

An infinitesimal linear wire is positioned symmetrically at the origin of the

coordinate system and oriented along the z axis, as shown in below Figure.1(a).
Although infinitesimal dipoles are not very practical, they are used to represent
capacitor-plate (also referred to as top-hat-loaded) antennas.

In addition, they are utilized as building blocks of more complex geometries. The
end plates are used to provide capacitive loading in order to maintain the current
on the dipole nearly uniform.
 Cont……
Since the end plates are assumed to be small, their radiation is usually negligible.
The wire, in addition to being very small , is very thin .

The spatial variation of the current is assumed to be constant and given by

where I0 = constant.
Radiated Fields

To find the fields radiated by the current element, the two-step procedure is used. It
will be required to determine first A and F and then find the E and H.
 Cont……
The functional relation between A and the source J is given by

or .
 Cont…….
Similar relations are available for F and M, as given by
,

And .

Since the source only carries an electric current I e, Im and the potential function F
are zero. To find A we write
 Cont…….
where (x, y, z) represent the observation point coordinates, (x’ , y’ , z’ ) represent
the coordinates of the source, R is the distance from any point on the source to the
observation point, and path C is along the length of the source. For the problem of
below Figure.3
 Cont……

Figure 4. Geometrical arrangement of an infinitesimal dipole and its associated

electric-field components on a spherical surface
 Cont……

so we can write as

For this problem, Ax = Ay = 0,

 Cont……

so

using reduces to
 Cont……
Using the symmetry of the problem (no φ variations), can be
expanded in spherical coordinates and written in simplified form as

Substituting – into
reduces it to
 Cont……

The electric field E can now be found using

or with J = 0. That is,

Substituting –

or –

into reduces it to
 Cont…..
Assignment 1: Under Radiated field
Power Density and Radiation Resistance

Radian Distance and Radian Sphere

Near-Field Region

Intermediate-Field Region
Far-Field Region

Directivity
 FINITE LENGTH DIPOLE
To reduce the mathematical complexities, it will be assumed that the dipole has a
negligible diameter (ideally zero). This is a good approximation provided the
diameter is considerably smaller than the operating wavelength.
Current Distribution

For a very thin dipole (ideally zero diameter), the current distribution can be
written, to a good approximation, as
 Cont……
Radiated Fields: Element Factor, Space Factor, and Pattern Multiplication

The finite dipole antenna of below Figure.5 is subdivided into a number of

infinitesimal dipoles of length . As the number of subdivisions is increased, each
infinitesimal dipole approaches a length

For an infinitesimal dipole of length positioned along the z-axis at z’ the electric
and magnetic field components in the far field are given, using

– , as
 Cont…..
Where R is given by
or

Using the far-field approximations given by ,

can be written as

Summing the contributions from all the infinitesimal elements, the summation
reduces, in the limit, to an integration. Thus
 Cont…….
The factor outside the brackets is designated as the element factor and that within
the brackets as the space factor. For this antenna, the element factor is equal to the
field of a unit length infinitesimal dipole located at a reference point (the origin).
In general, the element factor depends on the type of current and its direction of
flow while the space factor is a function of the current distribution along the
source.
The total field of the antenna is equal to the product of the element and space
factors. This is referred to as pattern multiplication for continuously distributed
sources and it can be written as
 Cont……
For the current distribution of ,

can be written as
 Cont…….
Each one of the integrals in

can be integrated using

 Cont…..

After some mathematical manipulations,

takes the form of

In a similar manner, or by using the established relationship between the Eθ and Hφ in the far
field, the total Hφ component can be written as
 Cont……
Power Density, Radiation Intensity, and Radiation Resistance
For the dipole, the average Poynting vector can be written as

and the radiation intensity as

 Cont……
To find the total power radiated, the average Poynting vector of

is integrated over a sphere of radius r. Thus

 Cont……

 Directivity

The radiation pattern of a dipole becomes more directional as its length increases.
When the overall length is greater than one wavelength, the number of lobes
increases and the antenna loses its directional properties.
 Cont……
Where F (θ , φ) is related to the radiation intensity U

From the dipole antenna of length L

has
 Cont…..
Because the pattern is not a function of φ, reduces to

 Input Resistance
The input impedance was defined as “the ratio of the voltage to current at a pair of
terminals or the ratio of the appropriate components of the electric to magnetic
fields at a point.” To refer the radiation resistance to the input terminals of the
antenna, the antenna itself is first assumed to be lossless (RL = 0). Then the power
at the input terminals is equated to the power at the current maximum.
 Cont……

Where
Rin = radiation resistance at input (feed) terminals
Rr = radiation resistance at current maximum
I0 = current maximum
Iin = current at input terminals
 Cont…..
For a dipole of length L, the current at the input terminals (I in ) is related to the
current maximum (I0) referring to below Figure.5, by

Thus the input radiation resistance of

can be written as

Figure 5: Current distribution of a linear wire antenna when current maximum does not occur
at the input terminals.
 Cont……
When the overall length of the antenna is a multiple of λ (i.e., L = nλ, n = 1, 2,
3, . . ), it is apparent from

Which indicates that the input resistance at the input terminals, is infinite. In
practice this is not the case because the current distribution does not follow an
exact sinusoidal distribution, especially at the feed point. It has, however, very
high values.
 Cont……
Two of the primary factors which contribute to the nonsinusoidal current
distribution on an actual wire antenna are the nonzero radius of the wire and
finite gap spacing at the terminals.

The radiation resistance and input resistance, as predicted, respectively, based

on the ideal current distribution and do not account for the finite radius of the
wire or the gap spacing at the feed.
Although the radius of the wire does not strongly influence the resistances, the
gap spacing at the feed does play a significant role especially when the current at
and near the feed point is small.
 Cont……
Finite Feed Gap

Once the antenna is excited by the “ideal” current distribution of,

electric and magnetic fields are generated which in turn disturb the “ideal” current
distribution. This reaction is included by modifying the above equation to
 Cont……
Where p is a coefficient that is dependent upon the overall length of the antenna
and the gap spacing at the terminals. The values of p become smaller as the radius
of the wire and the gap decrease. The variations of the current distribution and
impedances, especially of wire-type antennas, as a function of the radius of the
wire and feed gap spacing can be easily taken into account by using advanced
computational methods and numerical techniques, especially Integral Equations
and Moment Method.

Therefore the gap at the feed plays an important role on the current distribution at
and near the feed point.
 HALF-WAVELENGTH DIPOLE
One of the most commonly used antennas is the half-wavelength (L = λ/2) dipole.
Because its radiation resistance is 73 ohms, which is very near the 50-ohm or 75-
ohm characteristic impedances of some transmission lines, its matching to the line
is simplified especially at resonance. Because of its wide acceptance in practice.

The electric and magnetic field components of a half-wavelength dipole can be

obtained from and

by letting L = λ/2. Doing this, they reduce to……………. Next

 Cont……

In turn, the time-average power density

and radiation intensity can be written,
respectively, as
 Cont……
The total power radiated can be obtained as a special case of ,

or

which when integrated reduces, as a special case of,

to
 Cont……
Cin (2π ) is equal to
The maximum directivity of the half-wavelength dipole reduces to

The corresponding maximum effective area is equal to

and the radiation resistance, for a free-space medium
is given by
 Cont……
The radiation resistance is also the radiation resistance at the input terminals
(input resistance) since the current maximum for a dipole of l = λ/2 occurs at the
input terminals.
 The imaginary part (reactance) associated with the input impedance of a dipole is
a function of its length (for L = λ/2, it is equal to j42.5). Thus the total input
impedance for L = λ/2 is equal to
END OF CHAPTER 4

THANK YOU