Ship Structure

Sahid Sir
 Ship Design Steps
• Concept Design
• Purpose: Translates mission requirements into technical feasibility studies.
• Key Elements: Length, beam, depth, draft, fullness, power, speed, range, cargo
cubic, deadweight.
• Process: Parametric studies to determine most economical design.
• Outcome: Talking paper for approximate construction costs.
• Preliminary Design
• Purpose: Refines major ship characteristics affecting cost and performance.
• Key Elements: Length, beam, horsepower, deadweight.
• Outcome: Precise definition of vessel, basis for contract plans and specification.
• Contract Design
• Purpose: Further refines preliminary design based on detailed analysis.
• Key Elements: Hull form, powering, seakeeping, maneuvering, number
of propellers, structural details, steel type, frames, weight and center of
gravity estimate, final general arrangement.
• Detail Design
• Purpose: Develops detailed working plans for installation and
construction.
• Key Element: Clear and unambiguous instructions for artisans.
 Ship contacts
• Building Specification
• Purpose: Forms the legal basis of the contract between shipbuilder and
owner.
• Content: Includes ship description, dimensions, capacities, speed, stability,
quality, surveys, accommodation, trials, equipment, and machinery details.
• Machinery Details: Often a separate section of the specification.
• AWES Standard Form of Contract
• Key Clauses: Subject, inspection, modifications, trials, guarantee, delivery,
price, property, insurance, defaults, contract expenses, patents, expert
reference, effectiveness, legal domicile, and assignment.
• Payment Schedule
• Traditional: 10% on signing, 10% on materials, 10% on keel laying, 20%
on launching, 50% on delivery.
• Modern: Tied to key event`s due to different cash flow patterns.
• Modifications
• Concern: Late modifications can significantly impact costs and delivery
time in modern construction methods.
 History of Classification society
• Early Classification Rules
• Lloyd's Register: Issued first wood rules in 1835, based on tonnage
numeral.
• Iron Ships: First iron ship classed in 1832, with rules published in
1855.
• American Shipmasters' Association: Published first iron rules in 1872.
• Early Beliefs about Iron Ships
• Durability: Properly constructed iron ships with cement and proper
coating were believed to last 20 years.
• Major Classification Societies
• Great Britain: Lloyd's Register of Shipping
• France: Bureau Veritas
• Germany: Germanischer Lloyd
• Norway: Det Norske Veritas
• Italy: Registro Italiano Navale
• United States: American Bureau of Shipping
• Russia: Russian Register of Shipping
• Japan: Nippon Kaiji Kyokai
Lloyd’s Register Classification Symbols
The majority of ships are assigned the characters
100A1or 00A1.

• Basic Class Notations

• 100: Suitable for sea-going service.
• A: Built in accordance with or accepted into class as complying with
Society's Rules and Regulations.
• 1: Fitted with anchor and mooring equipment complying with Society's
Rules and Regulations.
• N: Not required to be fitted with anchor and mooring equipment.
• Maltese Cross: New ships constructed under Society's Special Survey.
• Machinery and Equipment Notations
• LMC: Machinery constructed, installed, and tested under Special Survey.
• Lloyds RMC: Refrigerated cargo installation constructed, installed, and
tested under Special Survey.
• Lloyds RMC (LG): Liquefied gas carrier or tanker with approved cargo
refrigeration equipment.
• Ice Class Notations
• First-Year Ice:
• Ice Class 1A: Unbroken level ice with specified thickness.
• Ice Class 1B, 1C, 1D: Similar to 1A but with decreasing ice thickness.
• Multi-Year Ice:
• Ice Class AC1, AC1.5, AC2, AC3: Arctic or Antarctic ice conditions
equivalent to specified ice thickness.
PURPOSE OF CLASSIFICATION
SOCIETIES
• Classification Societies and Shipbuilding
• Role of Classification Societies: Publish rules and regulations
governing ship strength, equipment, and machinery reliability.
• Global Scope: Ships can be built to any society's rules, regardless of
their country of origin.
• Classification as a Choice: While not mandatory, unclassed ships must
meet government regulations for load lines and safety certificates.
Periodic survey by the CS to maintain assigned
class
• Annual Surveys
• Frequency: Approximately once a year.
• Scope: Examination of closing appliances, freeboard marks, auxiliary
steering gear, watertight doors, structural fire protection, general
vessel condition, anchors, and cables.
• Additional for Dry Bulk Carriers: Inspection of forward and after cargo
holds.
• Intermediate Surveys
• Replacement: For the second or third annual survey after building or
special survey.
• Focus: Additional attention to cargo holds in vessels over 15 years old and
operating systems of tankers, chemical carriers, and liquefied gas carriers.
• Docking Surveys
• Frequency: Not exceeding 2.5 years.
• Scope: Detailed examination of shell plating, stern frame, rudder, external
and through-hull fittings, hull parts prone to corrosion, and bottom
fairness.
• In summary, these surveys are essential for maintaining the safety and
integrity of steel ships.
 Heat Treatment of Steels
• Heat Treatment of Steel
• Purpose: To alter the mechanical properties of steel by modifying its structure.
• Types: Annealing, normalizing, quenching (hardening), tempering.
• Annealing
• Process: Heating to a high temperature followed by slow cooling in the furnace.
• Purpose: Relieve internal stresses, soften the steel, prepare for subsequent
heat treatments.
• Normalizing
• Process: Heating to a high temperature followed by air cooling.
• Purpose: Produce a harder, stronger steel than annealing, refine grain size.
• Quenching (Hardening)
• Process: Heating to a high temperature followed by rapid cooling in water or oil.
• Purpose: Produce a very hard structure with high tensile strength.
• Tempering
• Process: Heating quenched steel to a lower temperature followed by rapid cooling.
• Purpose: Relieve internal stresses, reduce brittleness, retain high tensile strength.
• Steel for Hull Construction
• Composition: Mild steel with 0.15-0.23% carbon, high manganese content, low sulfur and
phosphorus.
• Quality Control: Produced by approved manufacturers, inspected and tested at steel
mills, marked with Lloyd's Register brand.
• Importance of Low Sulfur and Phosphorus: Prevents cracks during rolling and ensures
good welding properties.
• In summary, the text describes the different heat treatments used to modify the
properties of steel and the specific requirements for steel used in hull construction.
• Mild Steel for Hull Construction
• Carbon and Manganese Content: Mild steel typically contains 0.15-
0.23% carbon and a reasonably high manganese content.
• Sulphur and Phosphorus: These elements are kept to a minimum (less
than 0.05%) to avoid welding issues and cracking during rolling.
• Lloyd's Register Requirements: Steel for Lloyd's Register-classed ships
is produced by approved manufacturers and undergoes inspections
and tests at the mill.
• Marking: Certified materials are marked with the Society's brand and
other particulars.
• High Tensile Steels
• Increased Strength: Higher strength steels are used in highly stressed areas of
large tankers, container ships, and bulk carriers.
• Thickness Reduction: These steels allow for thinner decks, bottom shells, and
framing in the midships section.
• Deflections: However, they lead to larger deflections.
• Weldability: Weldability is a crucial consideration for using high tensile steels
in ship structures.
• Fatigue Life: Reduced fatigue life has been suggested as a potential issue.
• Corrosion: Thinner plates and sections may require more vigilant corrosion
inspection.
 Classification Society Weld Tests
• Classification Society Tests for Welding Consumables
• Initial Approval: Classification societies require destructive tests for initial
approval of welding consumables (electrodes, wire-flux combinations, etc.).
• Suitability for Shipbuilding: These tests determine if the consumables are
suitable for shipbuilding purposes based on the manufacturer's specified
category.
• Types of Tests: Tensile, bend, impact, composition, and cracking tests are
conducted on deposited weld metal and welded plate specimens.
• Annual Inspections
• Works Producing Consumables: All works producing approved welding
consumables are subject to annual inspections.
• Scope of Inspections: Inspections cover electrodes, wire-flux combinations,
consumables for electro-slag and electro-gas welding, and consumables for
one-sided welding with temporary backing.
 Aluminium Alloy
• Advantages of Aluminum Alloys over Mild Steel in Ship Construction
• Weight Reduction: Aluminum is significantly lighter than steel, leading
to potential weight savings of up to 60%.
• Corrosion Resistance: Aluminum alloys have high resistance to
corrosion.
• Non-Magnetic Properties: While less important for merchant vessels,
non-magnetic properties can be beneficial in warships and near
magnetic compasses.
• Disadvantages of Aluminum Alloys
• High Initial Cost: Aluminum alloys are significantly more expensive than steel.
• Economic Feasibility: The economic advantage of using aluminum depends
on increased earning capacity or reduced lightship weight.
• Applications of Aluminum Alloys in Ship Construction
• Superstructures: Aluminum superstructures can reduce displacement and
improve transverse stability.
• Passenger Ships: In passenger ships, reduced weight can lead to lower center
of gravity, increased metacentric height, or reduced beam.
• High-Speed Vessels: Aluminum is well-suited for high-speed vessels like
ferries due to its strength-to-weight ratio.
• Specific Applications: Aluminum is most advantageous in ships with high
speed, low deadweight/lightweight ratios, or specific requirements like
clearing river bars.
• Overall Assessment
• Economic Feasibility: The economic viability of using aluminum in ship
construction depends on factors like vessel type, speed, and operating
conditions.
• Specific Applications: Aluminum is most commonly used in
superstructures, high-speed vessels, and ships where weight reduction
is critical.
 Mould Loft
• Traditional Mold Loft Practices
• Full-Size Layout: Ship details were laid out at full size on a large,
covered floor.
• Lines and Offsets: Scale lines plans and offsets from the drawing office
were used.
• Fairing: Lines were faired full size, requiring significant floor space.
• Scrieve Board: Body sections were laid out to create a scrieve board
for frame molding and template preparation.
• Computer-Aided Mold Loft Practices
• Computer Fairing: Mainframe computer programs provided full-size
fairing, reducing the need for large loft space.
• Scrieve Board: Only the scrieve board needed to be laid down from the
faired offsets.
• Scrieve Boards
• Full-Size Frame Lines: A large section of flooring where frame molded
lines were drawn in full size.
• Template Preparation: Used for preparing set bars, levels, templates, and
moldings for plates.
• Shell Plate Development: Shell plates were developed full size and
wooden templates were made for marking and cutting.
• 10/1 Scale Lofting
• Introduction: Introduced in the late 1950s and widely adopted.
• Virtual Drawing Office: Reduced the mold loft to a virtual drawing office.
• Production Engineering: Assisted in the introduction of production
engineering methods.
• 10/1 Scale: Lines and scrieve boards were created at a 10/1 scale.
• Flame Profiling: Many yards used flame profiling machines controlled by
10/1 template drawings.
• Template Preparation: Template drawings were prepared using special
materials with high accuracy requirements.
• Tracing: Outlines of plates were traced directly from the scrieve board for
cutting.
 Moulded
dimensio
ns

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL 2

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 Vertical Shear and Longitudinal Bending in Still Water

• Equilibrium in Still Water

• Homogeneous Body: For a uniform body floating in still water, weight
and buoyancy forces are equal at each section.
• No Stress or Deformation: This equilibrium prevents stress and
deformation.
• Non-Uniformity in Ships: Ships have uneven weight and buoyancy
distributions due to cargo and structural variations.
• Vertical Shearing Forces
• Resultant Forces: At each section, there's a resultant force (excess buoyancy
or load).
• Distortion: These forces cause vertical shearing forces that tend to distort
the vessel.
• Beam Analogy: The ship can be compared to a beam loaded with varying
weights.
• Hogging and Sagging
• Tension and Compression: In a hogging condition, the deck is in tension, and
the bottom is in compression.
• Reverse in Sagging: In a sagging condition, the deck is in compression, and
the bottom is in tension.
• Bending Moments: A vessel in still water experiences bending moments due
to weight and buoyancy variations.
 Vertical shear and longitudinal bending in still water

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Bending moments in a seaway
• Wave Effects on Ship Bending
• Buoyant Force Variation: Waves create varying buoyant forces due to
troughs and crests.
• Increased Bending Moments: This variation can lead to increased
bending moments, vertical shear forces, and stresses.
• Extreme Case: The extreme effect can be illustrated by balancing a ship
on a wave of equal length.
• Hogging and Sagging: If the wave crest is amidships, the ship tends to
hog; if the wave trough is amidships, the ship tends to sag.
• Overall Effect: In a seaway, the overall bending moment increases
compared to still water due to the greater buoyancy variation.
• Fig
 Longitudinal Shear Forces

When the vessel hogs and sags in still water and at sea shear forces
similar
to the vertical shear forces will be present in the longitudinal plane
(next Figure).

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL

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 Transver
se
Stresses

Racking
( dynamic)

Static Water Pressure

DR. MD. SHAHIDUL
Load
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 Local Stresses

• Panting
• Definition: A bellows-like movement of the shell plating caused by fluctuating
pressures at the ship's ends.
• Causes: Occurs when a ship is running into waves and pitching heavily.
• Severity: Most severe when large pressures occur over a short time cycle.
• Countermeasures: Strengthening is required both forward and aft to resist
panting.
• Pounding
• Definition: Severe local stresses in the bottom shell and framing forward
when a ship encounters head seas.
• Severity: Likely to be most severe in a lightly ballasted condition.
• Location: Occurs in the area of the bottom shell aft of the collision bulkhead.
• Countermeasures: Additional stiffening is required in this region.
 Design Loads
• Load Combinations and Design Load Scenarios
• Static (S) and Dynamic (D) Loads: Strength assessment is based on either static or
static plus dynamic load cases.
• Load Dependency: Static and dynamic loads are influenced by the loading condition.
• Static Loads: Include still water hull girder loads, external loads, and internal loads.
• Dynamic Loads: Include dynamic hull girder loads, external loads, and internal loads.
• Coordinate System
• Origin: Intersection of centerline, aft end of Ls, and baseline.
• Axes:
• x-axis: Longitudinal, positive forward.
• y-axis: Transverse, positive towards port.
• z-axis: Vertical, positive upward.
• Ls (Rule Length): Basis for hull design and equipment selection.
• Wave Direction
• Head Sea: Waves propagating backward (negative x-direction).
• Beam Sea: Waves propagating sideways (positive or negative y-direction).
• Oblique Sea: Waves propagating between head and beam sea.
• Following Sea: Waves propagating forward (positive x-direction).
• Ship Motions
• Surge: Translation forward (positive x-direction).
• Sway: Translation sideways (positive towards port).
• Heave: Vertical translation (positive upward).
• Roll: Rotation around the longitudinal axis (starboard down).
• Pitch: Rotation around the transverse axis (bow down).
• Yaw: Rotation around the vertical axis (bow to port).
• Sign Conventions for Moments and Forces
• Vertical Bending Moments: Positive for hogging, negative for sagging.
• Vertical Shear Forces: Positive for downward forces aft, upward forces
forward.
• Horizontal Bending Moments: Positive for tensile stresses starboard,
negative for tensile stresses port.
• Torsional Moments: Positive for aft-acting moment with negative
rotation, forward-acting moment with positive rotation.
Sign conventions of positive bending moments, shear force, and
3
torsional moment
9