Course Title: Mathematics For

Social/Natural
Course Code: Math1011/1071
Credit hour: 3
Inst name: Dagnachew .G
 Chapter 1:
Propositional Logic and set Theory
Propositional Logic
•Section objectives:
•After completing this section, students will be able to:-
Identify the difference between proposition and sentence.
Describe the five logical connectives.
Determine the truth values of propositions using the rules of logical connectives.
Construct compound propositions using the five logical connectives.
Determine the truth values of compound propositions.
Distinguish a given compound proposition is whether tautology or contradiction.
 [Link] and examples of propositions
Definition1.1:
A proposition (or statement) is a sentence which has a truth value (either
True or False but not both).
•Remark: Every proposition has a truth value, namely true (denoted by T
) or false (denoted by F).
Example:Identify whether the following sentences are proposition or not.
a.2 is an even number.
b.A triangle has four sides.
[Link] Menelik ate chicken soup the night after the battle of Adwa.
[Link] God bless you!
[Link] me that book.
[Link] is your name
1.1.2. Logical connectives
•In mathematical discourse and elsewhere one constantly encounters
declarative sentences which have been formed by modifying a
sentence with the word “not” or by connecting sentences with the
words “and”, “or”, “if . . . then (or implies)”, and “if and only if”. These
five words or combinations of words are called propositional
connectives.
•Note: Letters such as p,q,r,s,etc. are usually used to denote actual
propositions.
 [Link](Ʌ)
• When two propositions are joined with the connective “and,” the
proposition formed is a logical conjunction,“and” is denoted by “Ʌ ”.
So, the logical conjunction of two propositions, p and q , is written: p
Ʌq, read as “ p and q ,” or “ p conjunction q ”.
• p and q are called the components of the conjunction.
Note: p Ʌq is True if and only if both p and q have truth value
True;otherwise it is False.
The truth table for conjunction is given as follows:
p q p Ʌq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
 Example 1.1:
•Consider the following propositions:
p: 3 is an odd number. (True)
q: 27 is a prime number. (False)
r: Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
a. pɅq: 3 is an odd number and 27 is a prime number. (False)
b. pɅr : 3 is an odd number and Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia.
(True)
[Link] ()
•When two propositions are joined with the connective “or,” the
proposition formed is called a logical disjunction.“or” is denoted by “ V ”.
So, the logical disjunction of two propositions,p and q,is written as: pvq’
and read as “p or q” or “ p disjunction q ”
Note: p v q is False if and only if both p and q have truth value
False;otherwise it is True. The truth table for disjunction is given as
follows: p q pVq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
 Example 1.2:
•Consider the following propositions:
p: 3 is an odd number. (True)
q: 27 is a prime number. (False)
s: Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
a. pvq : 3 is an odd number or 27 is a prime number. (True)
[Link] : 27 is a prime number or Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
 [Link]()
•When two propositions are joined with the connective “implies,” the proposition
formed is called a logical implication. “implies” is denoted by “. ” The logical
implication of two propositions,p and q, is written as: “pread as follows:
“ p implies q .”
“ q if p”
“If p… then q”
“ p only if q”
“ P is sufficient for q”
“ q is necessary for p ”
Cont….
Note: pis false if and only if p is True and q is False;otherwise it is True.
This form of a proposition is common in mathematics.
The proposition p is called the hypothesis or the antecedent of the
conditional proposition p while is called its conclusion or the
consequent.
The following is the truth table for implication.

p q p
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Examples 1.3: Consider the following propositions:

p: 3 is an odd number. (True)
q: 27 is a prime number. (False)
r : Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
p: If 3 is an odd number, then 27 is prime. (False)
p : If 3 is an odd number, then Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
 [Link]-implication ()
• When two propositions are joined with the connective “bi-implication,” the
proposition formed is called a logical bi-implication or a logical
equivalence. A bi-implication is denoted by “ ”. So the logical bi-
implication of two propositions,p and q, is written: p and can be read as
follows:
 p if and only if q (also written as p iff q),
 P implies q and q implies p,
 p is necessary and sufficient for q
 q is necessary and sufficient for p
Note: p is false if and only if p and q have different truth values;otherwise
it is True.
 [Link] (¬) :

• Given any proposition p , we can form the proposition ¬p called the negation of
p .
• The truth value of ¬p is False if p is True and ¬p is True if p isFalse.
We can describe the relation between and as fol ows.
p ¬p
T F
F T

Example 1.5: Let

p: Addis Ababa is not the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
¬p :Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
 Exercise 1.1
1. Which of the following sentences are propositions? For those that are, indicate the
truth value.
a. 123 is a prime number. d. .
b. 0 is an even number. e. Multiply by 3.
c. What an impossible question!
1. State the negation of each of the following statements.
a. is a rational number. b. 0 is not a negative integer. c. 111 is a prime number.
1. Let : 15 is an odd number and : 21 is a prime number.
State each of the following in words, and determine the truth value of each.
a. c. e. g.
b. . d. f. .
Complete the following truth table.
 1.1.3 Compound (or complex) propositions
Definition 1.2: The proposition formed by joining two or more propositions by connective(s) is
called a compound (complex) statement.

example, the expression p⟹q∧r will be meaningless unless we know which connective should apply
Note: We must be careful to insert the brackets in proper places, just as we do in arithmetic. For

first. It could mean (p⟹q)∧r or p⟹(q∧r), which are very different propositions.
The possible truth values of a proposition are often listed in a table, called a truth table. If and are propositions,
then there are four possible combinations of truth values for and . That is, , , and . If a third proposition is involved,
then there are eight possible combinations of truth values for , and . In general, a truth table involving “”
propositions ,,…, contains possible combinations of truth values for these propositions and a truth table showing
these combinations would have columns and rows. So, we use truth tables to determine the truth value of a
compound proposition based on the truth value of its constituent component propositions.
Examples 1.7:
[Link] p and r are true and q and s are false. What is the truth value of
p∧q⟹(r∨s)?
[Link] p is true and q is false, p∧q is false. iii. Since r is true and s is false, r∨s

Thus by applying the rule of implication, we get that p∧q⟹(r∨s) is true.

is true.

• Suppose that a compound proposition is symbolized by: (p∨q)⟹(r⟺s)

and that the truth values of p,q,r, and s are T,F,F, and T, respectively. Then the
truth value of p∨q is T, that of s is of r⟺s is T. So the truth value of (p∨q)⟹(r⟺s) is T.
, that
Remark: When dealing with compound propositions, we shall adopt the following convention on the
use of parenthesis. Whenever “ ” or “ ” occur with “ ” or “ ”, we shall assume that “ ” or “ ” is
applied first, and then “ ” or “ ” is then applied
For example,
means , means
means , means
However, it is always advisable to use brackets to indicate the order of the desired operations.
 Definition 1.3:
Two compound propositions and are said to be equivalent if they have the same truth value
for all possible combinations of truth values for the component propositions occurring in both
and . In this case we write .

Q:q⟹p, R : p⟹q and S : p∨q

P:p⟹q,
Example 1.8: Let

F F
T T
T T
T T

Then, , since columns 5 and 6; columns 7 and 8 of the above table are identical.
 Continued…
• Given the conditional , we give the related conditional propositions:-
: Converse of
: Inverse of
: Contrapositive of
• Propositions, under the relation of logical equivalence, satisfy various laws
or identities, which are listed below.
[Link] Laws [Link] Laws
a.. a.
b.. b..
Cont…
[Link] Laws:
.
b..
[Link] of Contrapositive:
[Link] Law: .
6. Commutative Laws 7. De Morgan’s Laws
a. . a. .
b. .
 1.1.4 Tautology and contradiction
Definition: A compound proposition is a tautology if it is always true regardless of the truth values of its component propositions. If, on the other hand, a
compound proposition is always false regardless of its component propositions, we say that such a proposition is a contradiction.

[Link] p is any proposition. Consider the compound propositions p∨p and p∧p.
Examples 1.9:

Observe that p∨p is a tautology while p∧p is a contradiction.

[Link] any propositions p and q. Consider the compound proposition p⟹(q⟹p) and
p⟹q⟺(p∧q)
T
T
T
T

We have exhibited all the possibilities and we see that for all truth values of the constituent propositions, the proposition
is always true. Thus, is a tautology, while is a contradiction.
 Cont…
• Remark: Two compounds propositions and are equivalent if and only if “” is a
tautology.
Exercises 1.2
[Link] statements and , use a truth table to show that each of the following pairs of
statements is logically equivalent or not.
a. and . d. and .
b. and . e. and .
c. and .
[Link] statements , and , show that the following compound statements are tautology.
a. b. c. .
 Cont…..
[Link] statements p and q, show that p∧q∧(p∧q) is a contradiction.
[Link] the contrapositive and the converse of the following conditional statements.
[Link] it is cold, then the lake is frozen. c. If it rains, Tigist does not take a walk.
[Link] Solomon is healthy, then he is happy.
[Link] p and q be statements. Which of the following implies that p∨q is false?
is false c. is true is true.
is true d. is false.

[Link] that the statements p,q,r, and s are assigned the truth values T,F,F, and T,

a.(p∨q)∨r d. r⟹(s∧p). f. p⟹(r∨s) h. r∧s⟹(p⟹(q∨s))

respectively. Find the truth value of each of the following statements.

b.p∨(q∨r) e. p⟹(r⟹s) g. p∨r⟺(r∧s) i. s⟺p⟹(p∨s)

c.q∧s⟹(p⟺s) j. p∨q∨r⟹(s∧s).

[Link] the value of is ; what can be said about the value of ?

8.a. Suppose the value of is ; what can be said about the values of and ?
b. Suppose the value of is ; what can be said about the values of and ?
 Contd…..

[Link] the truth table for each of the following statements.

a. c. e.
b. d. f.
[Link] each of the following determine whether the information given is sufficient to decide
the truth value of the statement. If the information is enough, state the truth value. If it is
insufficient, show that both truth values are possible.
a., where . d. , where .
b., where . e. , where .
c., where . f. , where and .
1.2 Open propositions and quantifiers
Definition 1.4: An open statement (also called a predicate) is a sentence that
contains one or more variables and whose truth value depends on the values
assigned for the variables. We represent an open statement by a capital letter
followed by the variable(s) in parenthesis, e.g., etc.

Example 1.10: Here are some open propositions:

a. is the day before Sunday b. is a city in Africa c. is greater than d.

Remark: The collection of all allowable values for the variable in an open sentence is called
the universal set (the universe of discourse) and denoted by .
Definition 1.5: Two open proposition and are said to be equivalent if and only if
for all individual . Note that if the universe is specified, then and are equivalent if and
only if for all .
Cont…
Definition 1.6: Let be the universal set. An open
proposition is a tautology if and only if is always true for
all values of .

Example 1.12: The open proposition is a tautology.

Note:An open proposition can be converted into a
proposition in two ways:
i. substituting the individuals for the variables.
ii. By using quantifiers by a method called quantification.
 Relationship between the existential and universal
quantifiers

• If is a formula in , consider the following four statements.

a. b. c. d.
• We might translate these into words as follows.
[Link] has property c. Nothing has property
[Link] has property d. Something does not have property
• Now (d) is the denial of (a), and (c) is the denial of (b), on the basis of
everyday meaning.
• Hence we conclude that:
• ¬ and .
 Contd….
Example 1.11: Let and .
Let .
Then for all ; and have the same truth value.
• () ()
• () ()
• () ()
• () ()
• Therefore for all .
a. The phrase "for every " is called a universal quantifier. We regard "for every
and "for each " as having the same meaning and symbolize each by “.” If
proposition with universe , then is a quantified proposition and is read as “eve
property .”
b. The phrase "there exists an " is called an existential quantifier. We regard "
an ," "for some ," and "for at least one " as having the same meaning, and sym
by “.” Think of the symbol as the backwards capital (representing exists).
If is an open proposition with universe , then is a quantified proposition an
“there exists with the property .”
Relationship between the
existential and universal quantifiers
• If is a formula in , consider the following four statements.
b. c. d.
• We might translate these into words as follows.
[Link] has property c. Nothing has property
[Link] has property d. Something does not have property
• Now (d) is the denial of (a), and (c) is the denial of (b), on the basis of
everyday meaning.
 Contd….
• Hence we conclude that:
and .
• Example 1.14: Let .
• .
• .
 Quantifiers Occurring in
Combinations
• If we consider cases in which universal and existential quantifiers
occur in combination, we are lead to essentially new logical
structures. The following are the simplest forms of combinations:
• : “for all and for all the relation holds”;
• : “there is an and there is a for which holds”;
• : “for every there is a such that holds”;
• : “there is an which stands to every in the relation .”
 Example 1.16
• Let The set of integers and .
A. means that there is an integer and there is an integer such that .This
statement is true when and . Therefore, the statement is always true for this
universe.
B. means that there is an integer such that for every,. This is false since no
fixed value of will make this true for all in the universe
C. means that for every integer , there is an integer such that ,. Let , then will
always be an integer, so this is a true statement
Contd…
D. means that for every integer and for every integer , . This is false,
for if and , we get .
Exercise 1.3(Hometake Exam)
1. 3. Argument and Validity
Definition 1.7: An argument (logical deduction) is an assertion that a given set of
statements , called hypotheses or premises, yield another statement , called the
conclusion. Such a logical deduction is denoted by:
or

Example 1.17: Consider the following argument:

If you study hard, then you will pass the exam. You did not pass the exam.
Therefore, you did not study hard.
Let : You study hard & : You will pass the exam.
The argument form can be written as:
 Contd…
p q
q
p

Definition 1.8: An argument form is said to be valid if is true whenever all the
premises are true; otherwise it is invalid.

Example 1.18: Investigate the validity of the following argument:

p  q,  q   p

If it rains, crops will be good. It did not rain. Therefore, crops were not good.
p  q,  q  r  p
Solution:
• First we construct a truth table for the statements appearing in the
argument forms:
a.

The premises and are true simultaneously in row 4 only. Since in this
case is also true, the argument is valid.
Contd…

The 1st, 2nd, 5th, 6th and 7th rows are those in which all the
premises take value . In the 5th, 6th and 7th rows however the
conclusion takes value . Hence, the argument form is invalid.
 Contd….
• Let : It rains, : Crops are good, : It did not rain, : Crops were not
good.
The argument form is
• Now we can use truth table to test validity as follows:

The premises and are true simultaneously in rows 3rd and 4th
. In the 3rd row however the conclusion takes value . Hence,
the argument form is invalid.
Remark:

[Link] is important in validity is the form of the

argument rather than the meaning or content of the
statements involved.
[Link] argument form is valid iff the statement, is a
tautology.
Rules of inferences:
• Below we list certain valid deductions called rules of inferences:
1. Modes Ponens [Link] Tollens

[Link] of Adjunction
[Link] of Syllogism a.

b.
[Link] of Detachment [Link] Tollendo Ponens

[Link] Dilemma
[Link] Ponendo Tollens

[Link] of Conditionalization
[Link] of Equivalence
 Formal proof of validity of an argument

Definition 1.9: A formal proof of a conclusion given hypotheses is a sequence of

stapes, each of which applies some inference rule to hypotheses or previously
proven statements (antecedent) to yield a new true statement (the consequent).

Example 1.19: Show that is valid.

Solution:
1. is true premise
2. premise
3. contrapositive of (2)
4. Modes Ponens using (1) and (3)
 Example 1.20: Show that the hypotheses

It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday.

If we go swimming, then it is sunny.
If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip.
If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset.

Let 𝑝: It is sunny this afternoon.

Lead to the conclusion: We will be home by sunset.

𝑞: It is colder than yesterday.

𝑟: We go swimming.
𝑠: We take a canoe trip.
𝑡: We will be home by sunset.
 Then
1. hypothesis
2. simplification using (1)
3. hypothesis
4. Modus Tollens using (2) and (3)
5. hypothesis
6. Modus Ponens using (4) and (5)
7. hypothesis
8. Modus Ponens using (6) and (7)
 1.4 Set theory
•Section objectives:
•After completing this section, students will be able to:-
Explain the concept of set.
Describe sets in different ways.
Identify operations of sets.
Illustrate sets using Venn diagrams.

1.4.1. The concept of a set

The term set refers to a well-defined collection of objects that share a

certain property or certain properties.
 Definition of a set
•If is a set, then the objects of the collection are called the elements or members of the set .
• If is an element of the set , we write .
•If is not an element of the set , we write .
•As a convention, we use capital letters to denote the names of sets and lowercase letters for
elements of a set.
•Note that for each objects and each set , exactly one of or but not both must be true.
1.4.2 Description of sets
Sets are described or characterized by one of the following four different ways.
 [Link] Method

• In this method, an ordinary English statement with minimum mathematical

symbolization of the property of the elements is used to describe a set.
Example 1.21:
a. The set of counting numbers less than ten.
b. The set of all countries in Africa.
[Link]/Complete Listing Method

If the elements of a set can all be listed, we list them all between a pair of braces without
repetition separating by commas, and without concern about the order of their
appearance
 Examples 1.22:
[Link] set of vowels in English alphabet may also be described as .
b. The set of positive factors of 24 is also described as .
[Link] Listing Method
In this method we describe the set by partially listing the elements.
we list these few elements followed (or preceded) by exactly three dotes and
possibly by one last element.
Example 1.24:
[Link] set of all counting numbers is .
[Link] set of non-positive integers is .
 Contd…
[Link] set of multiples of 5 is .
[Link] set of odd integers less than 100 is

3. Set-builder Method
When all the elements satisfy a common property , we express the situation as an open
proposition and describe the set using a method called the Set-builder Method as
follows:

We read it as “ is equal to the set of all ’s such that is true.”

 Example 1.25:
•The following sets are described using the set-builder method.
a.

Example 1.26: The set of such that is an empty set.

Definition 1.10: The set which has no element is called the empty (or null) set and is
denoted by or .
 Relationships between two sets
Definition 1.11: Set is said to be a subset of set (or is contained in ), denoted by , if every
element of is an element of , i.e.,
.
It follows from the definition that set is not a subset of set if at least one element of is not
an element of . i.e., . In such cases we write or .

Remarks: For any set and .

Example 1.27:
a. If , and , then and
b. If and, then since every multiple of 6 is even. However, while . Thus .
c. If then and . On the other hand, since , , and .
Cont….
Definition 1.12: Sets and are said to be equal if they contain exactly the same
elements. In this case, we write . That is, .

Example 1.28:
a. The sets are all equal.

Definition 1.13: Set is said to be a proper subset of set if every element of is also
an element of , but has at least one element that is not in . In this case, we write .
We also say is a proper super set of A, and write . It is clear that
.

Definition 1.14: Let be a set. The power set of , dented by , is the set whose
elements are all subsets of . That is, .
 Contd…
Example 1.29: Let . As noted before, and are subset of . Moreover, and are
also subsets of . Therefore,
.
Frequently it is necessary to limit the topic of discussion to elements of a
certain fixed set and regard all sets under consideration as a subset of this
fixed set. We call this set the universal set or the universe and denoted by .
Do the following Exercise 1.5
1. Which of the following are sets?
a. 1,2,3 b. {1,2},3 c. {{1},2},3 d. {1,{2},3} e. {1,2,a, b}
2. Which of the following sets can be described in complete listing, partial listing and/or set-builder
methods? Describe each set by at least one of the three methods.
a. The set of the first 10 letters in the English alphabet. d. The set of all countries in the world.
b. The set of students of Addis Ababa University in the 2018/2019 academic year.
c. The set of positive multiples of 5. e. The set of all horses with six legs.

a. 𝐴= {𝑥 ∈ ℤ: −4 < 𝑥 ≤ 4} c. 𝐵 = ሼ 𝑥 ∈ ℤ: 𝑥2 < 5ሽ e. 𝐶= ሼ 𝑥 ∈ ℕ: 𝑥3 < 5ሽ

3. Write each of the following sets by listing its elements within braces.

b. 𝐷 = ሼ 𝑥 ∈ℝ: 𝑥2 − 𝑥 = 0ሽ d. 𝐸= {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥2 + 1 = 0}.
4. Let 𝐴be the set of positive even integers less than 15. Find the truth value of each of the following.
a. 15 ∈ 𝐴 c. −16 ∈ 𝐴 e. 𝜙 ∈ 𝐴 g. 12 ⊂ 𝐴 i. {2,8,14}𝐴
b. {2,3,4} ⊆ 𝐴 d. {2,4} ∈ 𝐴 f. 𝜙 ⊂ 𝐴 h. {2,4,6} ⊆ 𝐴

a. 𝜙 ⊆ 𝜙c.{1,2} ⊆ {1,2}e.𝜙 ∈ 𝐴 for any set A g. {𝜙} ⊆ 𝐴, for any set A

5. Find the truth value of each of the following and justify your conclusion.

b. {5,7} ⊆ {5,6, 7,8} d. 𝜙 ∈ {{𝜙}} f. For any set 𝐴,𝐴⊂ 𝐴 h. {𝜙} = 𝜙

a. {𝑎𝑏} b. {1,1.5} c. {𝑎,𝑏} d. {𝑎, 0.5,𝑥}

6. For each of the following set, find its power set.

How many subsets and proper subsets do the sets that contain exactl y 1, 2,3, 4,8, 10 and 20 elements have?
If 𝑛 is a whole number, use your observation in Problems 6 and 7 to discover a formula for the number of
7.

subsets of a set with 𝑛 elements. How many of these are proper subsets of the set?
8.

9. Is there a set A with exactly the following indicated property?

a. Only one subset c. Only one proper subset e. Exactly 3 proper subsets g. Exactly 15 proper subsets
b. Exactly 6 proper subsets d. Exactly 30 subsets f. Exactly 14 proper subsets h. Exactly 4 subsets
10. How many elements does A contain if it has:
a. 64 subsets? b. 31 proper subsets? c. No proper subset? d. 255 proper subsets?

a. 𝜙 ∈𝑃(𝜙) b. 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴,𝜙 ⊆ 𝑃(𝐴) c. 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴,𝐴∈ 𝑃(𝐴) d. 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐴,𝐴⊂ 𝑃(𝐴)
11. Find the truth value of each of the following.

12. For any three sets 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶, prove that:

a. If 𝐴⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶, then 𝐴⊆ 𝐶. b. If 𝐴⊂ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐶, then 𝐴⊂ 𝐶
 1.4.3 Set Operations and Venn diagrams
• In this section, three most important operations, namely union, intersection
and complement are discussed.
Definition 1.15: The union of two sets and , denoted by , is the set of all elements that are
either in or in (or in both sets). That is,.

Definition 1.16: The intersection of two sets and , denoted by , is the set of all elements
that are in and . That is,
.

Note: - Two sets and are said to be disjoint sets if .

 Example 1.30:

Let and . Then,

and .
Let = The set of positive even integers, and = The set of positive multiples
of 3. Then,

Definition 1.17: The difference between two sets and , denoted by , is the of all elements
in and not in ; this set is also called the relative complement of with respect to .
Symbolically, .
 Example 1.31:
If , , then and .
• Note: In general, are disjoint.
Definition 1.18: Let be a subset of a universal set . The absolute complement (or simply
complement) of , denoted by (or or , is defined to be the set of all elements of that are
not in . That is, or .

Notice that taking the absolute complement of is the same as finding the relative
complement of with respect to the universal set . That is, .
 Example 1.32:
a. If 𝑈= {0,1,2,3,4}, and if 𝐴= {3,4}, then 𝐴′ = {3,4}.
b. Let 𝑈 = {1,2,3,…,12}, 𝐴= {𝑥| 𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 12} & 𝐵 = {𝑥| 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑈}.
Then, 𝐴 = {5,7,8,9,10,11}, 𝐵 = {2,4,6,8,10,12},
(𝐴∪𝐵) = (8,10}, 𝐴∪𝐵 = {2,4,5,6,…,12},
𝐴∩𝐵 = {8,10}, and (𝐴\𝐵) = {1,3,5,7,8,9,10,11}.
c. Let 𝑈 = {𝑎,𝑏,𝑐,𝑑,𝑒,𝑓,𝑔,ℎ},𝐴 = {𝑎,𝑒,𝑔,ℎ} and
𝐵 = {𝑏,𝑐,𝑒,𝑓,ℎ}. Then
𝐴 = {𝑏,𝑐,𝑑,𝑓}, 𝐵 = {𝑎,𝑑,𝑔}, 𝐵– 𝐴 = {𝑏,𝑐,𝑓},
𝐴– 𝐵 = {𝑎,𝑔}, and ሺ 𝐴∪𝐵ሻ ′ = {𝑑}.
Find (𝐴∩𝐵)′, 𝐴 ∩𝐵′, 𝐴 ∪𝐵′. Which of these are equal?
Theorem 1.1:
For any two sets and , each of the following holds.
1.. 3. . 5. .
2.. 4. . 6. .

Definition 1.19: The symmetric difference of two sets and , denoted by , is the set ,.

Example 1.33: Let be the universal set, and

. Then and .
Thus .
Contd…

Theorem 1.2: For any three sets 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶, each of the following holds.
•c

a. 𝐴∪𝐵 = 𝐵∪𝐴.
b. 𝐴∩𝐵 = 𝐵∩𝐴.
( is commutative)

c. (𝐴∪𝐵) ∪𝐶 = 𝐴∪(𝐵∪𝐶).
( is commutative)

d. (𝐴∩𝐵) ∩𝐶 = 𝐴∩(𝐵∩𝐶).
( is associative)

e. 𝐴∪(𝐵∩𝐶) = (𝐴∪𝐵) ∩(𝐴∪𝐶). ( is distributive over )

( is associative)

f. 𝐴∩(𝐵∪𝐶) = (𝐴∩𝐵) ∪(𝐴∩𝐶). ( is distributive over )

 Venn diagrams

• A Venn diagram is a schematic or pictorial representative of the sets involved

in the discussion.
Usually sets are represented as interlocking circles, each of which is enclosed
in a rectangle, which represents the universal set .
Example 1.34:
[Link] U = {x | x is a positive integer less than 13}
A = {x | x∈U and x is even} B = {x | x∈U and x is a
multiple of 3}.
A Venn diagram representation of these sets is given below.
 contd
Example 1.35: Let U = The set of one digits numbers
A = The set of one digits even numbers, B = The set of positive prime numbers less than 10
We illustrate the sets using a Venn diagram as follows.

A B U
0 4 3 1
2
6 8 5 9
7
 Contd..
Shaded is 𝐴∪ 𝐵 Shaded 𝐴∩ 𝐵
Now we illustrate intersections and unions of sets by Venn diagram.
Cases
Only some A B A B
common elements

𝐴⊆ 𝐵
B B

A A

A B A B
No common
element

A  B =
 If 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 , 𝐴∩ 𝐵′ = {1,4,5} and 𝐴∪ 𝐵 = {1,2,3,4,5,6}, find 𝐵.
Exercise 1.6

Let 𝐴= {2,4,6,7,8,9}, 𝐵 = {1,3,5,6,10} and 𝐶 ={ 𝑥: 3𝑥 + 6 = 0 or 2𝑥 + 6 = 0}. Find

1.

𝐴∪ 𝐵. b. Is ሺ 𝐴∪ 𝐵ሻ ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)?
2.

Suppose 𝑈 = The set of one digit numbers and

a.

𝐴={𝑥: 𝑥 is an even natural number less than or equal to 9}

3.

𝐴′ b. 𝐴∩ 𝐴 ′ c. 𝐴∪ 𝐴 ′ d. (𝐴 ′)′ e. 𝜙 − 𝑈 f. 𝜙′ g. 𝑈′
Describe each of the sets by complete list ing method:
a.
4. Use Venn dia gram to illustrate the following statements:
a. ሺ 𝐴∪ 𝐵ሻ ′ = 𝐴 ′ ∩ 𝐵′ 𝑏. ሺ 𝐴∩ 𝐵ሻ ′ = 𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵′ c. If 𝐴⊈ 𝐵, the n 𝐴\ 𝐵 ≠ 𝜙 𝑑. 𝐴∪ 𝐴 ′ = 𝑈

5. Let 𝐴= ሼ5,7,8,9ሽ, 𝐵 = ሼ5,6,9ሽ and 𝐶 = {6,7,8}. Then show that ሺ 𝐴 \ 𝐵ሻ \𝑐 ≠ 𝐴 \ (𝐵\ 𝐶).

a. 𝜙 ∩ {𝜙} b. {𝜙, {𝜙}} – {{𝜙}} c. {𝜙, {𝜙}} – {𝜙} d. {{{𝜙}}} – 𝜙

6. Perform each of the following operations.

7. Let 𝑈 = {2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15},

𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑈| 𝑥 is a posit ive prime factor of 66}, 𝐵 ={ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈| 𝑥 is composite number}
and 𝐶 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑈| 𝑥 – 5 ∈ 𝑈}. Then find each of the following.
𝐴∩ 𝐵, (𝐴∪ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 , (𝐴– 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶,(𝐴– 𝐵) – 𝐶, 𝐴– (𝐵 – 𝐶 ), (𝐴– 𝐶 ) – (𝐵 – 𝐴 ), 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶
8. Let 𝐴∪ 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} and 𝐴∩ 𝐵 = {𝑏, 𝑒, 𝑦}.


a. 𝐼𝑓 𝐵 – 𝐴 = {𝑥, 𝑧}, then 𝐴 = ________________________

b. 𝐼𝑓 𝐴– 𝐵 = 𝜙, then 𝐵 = _________________________
𝐼𝑓 𝐵 = {𝑏, 𝑒, 𝑦, 𝑧}, then 𝐴– 𝐵 = ____________________
Let 𝑈 = {1, 2, …, 10}, 𝐴 = {3, 5, 6, 8, 10}, 𝐵 = {1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9},
c.

𝐶 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8} and 𝐷 = {2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9}. Verify each of the following.

9.

a. (𝐴∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ). d. 𝐶 – 𝐷 = 𝐶∩ 𝐷
b. 𝐴∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶∪ 𝐷) = (𝐴∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴∩ 𝐶 ) ∪ (𝐴∩ 𝐷)
c. (𝐴∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶∩ 𝐷) = 𝐴  ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ∪ 𝐷 e. 𝐴∩ (𝐵∩ 𝐶 ) = (𝐴– 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴– 𝐶)

𝐴∆𝐵 b. 𝐶 ∆𝐷 c. ሺ 𝐴∆ 𝐶 ሻ ∆𝐷 d. (𝐴∪ 𝐵)\ (𝐴∆ 𝐵)

10. Depending on quest ion No. 9 find.

11. For any two subsets 𝐴and 𝐵 of a universal set 𝑈, prove that:
a.

a. 𝐴∆𝐵 = 𝐵 ∆ 𝐴 b. 𝐴∆𝐵 = (𝐴∪ 𝐵) – (𝐴∩ 𝐵) c. 𝐴∆𝜙 = 𝐴 d. 𝐴∆ 𝐴 = 𝜙.

12. Draw an appropriate Venn dia gram to depict each of the following sets.
a. U = The set of high school students in Addis Ababa.
A = The set of female high school students in Addis Ababa.
B = The set of high school anti-AIDS c lub me mber students in Addis Ababa.
C = The set of high school Nature Club me mber students in Addis Ababa
b. U = The set of integers. A = The set of even integers. B = The set of odd integers.
C = The set of multiples of 3. D = The set of prime numbers.
 Chapter Two : Functions
2.1 The real number systems
•At the end of this section, students will be able to:
 understand the concept of real numbers
 use properties of real numbers to solve problems
 determine whether a given real number is rational number or not
The real numbers &The four arithmetic operations
The real numbers along with the operations of addition (+) and multiplication
(×) , obey the 11 properties listed below
 a1b(
abbc
a (
(aab  (0ba1
1 
cb))ba a))ab(c1
)ca

 

ab
)
 a
0
1ba
ab (a1
0)(ca  ab))  ac

a)(aac
ca
The commutative Properties
1. For addition: a  b b  a 2. For multiplication: ab ba
The associative properties
2. For addition: a  (b  c ) ( a  b)  c 4. For multiplication:
a (bc ) ( ab)c

The distributive property

1. a (b  c ) ab  ac or (b  c )a ba  ca
Identities
2. For addition: There is a unique number called the additive identity, represented by 0, which
has the property that a  0 a 0  a for all real numbers a .
3. For multiplication: There is a unique real number called the multiplicative identity,
represented by 1, which has the property that a 1 a 1 a for all real numbers a .
Inverses
4. For addition: Each real number a has a unique additive inverse, represented by  a , which
has the property that a  (  a ) 0 (  a )  a
5. For multiplication: Each real number a , except 0, has a unique multiplicative inverse,
represented by a1 , which has the property that a ( a1 ) 1 ( a1 )a .
Closure properties
6. For addition: The sum of two real numbers is a real number.
7. For multiplication: The product of two real numbers is a real number.