• Blood is a vital fluid in the body that transports nutrients,
oxygen, waste products, and other essential substances.
• Composition: Plasma makes up about 55% of total blood
volume. It is mostly water (about 90%), but also contains
proteins, glucose, hormones, electrolytes, dissolved gases,
and waste products.
• Functions: Transportation: Carries nutrients, hormones, and
proteins to different parts of the body.
• Clotting: Contains clotting factors that help in blood clotting.
• Immune Defense: Contains antibodies that fight infections.
• Blood Components
• 1. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
• Function: Primarily responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to
tissues and returning carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs.
• Structure:
• Shape: Biconcave, which increases surface area for gas exchange and
allows flexibility to navigate through narrow capillaries.
• Hemoglobin: A protein containing iron that binds oxygen and gives red
blood cells their color.: Produced in the bone marrow at a rate of about 2-
3 million cells per second. Approximately 120 days.
• Special Features:
• Fetal Hemoglobin: Fetal red blood cells contain a type of hemoglobin that
has a higher affinity for oxygen compared to adult hemoglobin, facilitating
efficient oxygen transport from mother to fetus.
• 2. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
• Function: Play a crucial role in the immune system by
defending the body against infections and foreign invaders.
• Types and Functions:
• Neutrophils: The most abundant type of white blood cells.
They have a lobed nucleus and are the first responders to
bacterial infections.
• Lymphocytes: Include T cells, B cells, and natural killer
cells. They are vital for immune responses, such as
antibody production and the destruction of infected cells.
• Monocytes: Differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells,
which phagocytize pathogens and dead cells.
• Eosinophils: Combat multicellular parasites and are involved in
allergic reactions.
• Basophils: Release histamine and other mediators in allergic
reactions and inflammatory responses.
• Production: Produced in the bone marrow and other lymphatic
organs such as the thymus.
• Lifespan: Varies depending on the type; some live for a few days,
while others may live for years.
• 3. Platelets (Thrombocytes)
• Function: Essential for blood clotting, which prevents excessive
bleeding and helps heal wounds.
• Structure: Small, cell fragments without a nucleus,
enclosed in a membrane.
• Mechanism of Action:
• Clot Formation: Platelets adhere to the site of a blood
vessel injury, aggregate, and form a temporary plug.
• Clotting Cascade: They release chemicals that initiate a
cascade of reactions, ultimately converting fibrinogen (a
soluble plasma protein) into fibrin (insoluble threads).
Fibrin threads form a mesh that stabilizes the platelet
plug and traps red blood cells, forming a clot.
• Lifespan: Approximately 7-10 days. Functions of Blood
• Immune Defense: White blood cells and antibodies
in the blood protect against infections.
• Clotting: Platelets and clotting factors prevent blood
loss and aid in wound healing.
Blood Groups
Blood groups are determined by the presence of specific antigens on the surface of red
blood cells. The two primary systems for classifying blood types are the ABO and Rh
systems.
ABO Blood Group System
Group A: Red blood cells have A antigens. The plasma contains anti-B antibodies, which
attack B antigens.
Group B: Red blood cells have B antigens. The plasma contains anti-A antibodies, which
attack A antigens.
Group AB: Red blood cells have both A and B antigens. The plasma does not contain
anti-A or anti-B antibodies, allowing these individuals to receive blood from any ABO
group (universal recipient).
Group O: Red blood cells lack A and B antigens. The plasma contains both anti-A and
anti-B antibodies, allowing these individuals to donate blood to any ABO group
(universal donor). Rh Blood Group System
Rh Positive (Rh+): Individuals have the Rh antigen on the surface of their red blood cells.
• Rh Negative (Rh–): Individuals do not have the Rh
antigen. Rh– individuals can donate blood to Rh+
individuals but should not receive Rh+ blood, as they
may produce antibodies against the Rh antigen.
• Rh Factor and Pregnancy
• Rh factor incompatibility can occur during pregnancy if
an Rh– mother carries an Rh+ fetus. The mother’s
immune system may produce antibodies against the Rh
antigen, potentially leading to erythroblastosis fetalis
in subsequent pregnancies. This condition can cause
anemia, jaundice, and other complications in the fetus.
• Blood Donation and Transfusion
• Objectives of Blood Donation and Transfusion
• Reason for Blood Donation: To provide life-saving blood and
its components to those in need, such as in cases of injury,
surgery, or severe illness.
• Conditions for Blood Transfusion: Ensuring compatibility of
blood types between donor and recipient to prevent adverse
reactions.
• Blood Type and Rh Factor Compatibility: Critical for preventing
agglutination, where incompatible blood types cause red
blood cells to clump together, potentially blocking blood
vessels and causing life-threatening complications.
The lymphatic system
• The lymphatic system is a vital part of the circulatory
and immune systems, responsible for returning proteins
and excess interstitial fluid to the bloodstream and
providing immune defense. It consists of a network of
vessels, nodes, and organs that work together to
maintain fluid balance and protect the body from
infections.
• Functions of the Lymphatic System
• Return of Excess Interstitial Fluid:
• Absorption of Fats and Fat-Soluble Vitamins:
• Defense Against Pathogens: .
Components of the
Lymphatic System
• Lymph:
• A clear to white fluid containing lymphocytes (a type of white blood
cell) and other immune cells.
• Transports white blood cells throughout the body and removes
interstitial fluid from tissues.
• Helps in removing metabolic wastes and transporting nutrients.
• Lymphatic Vessels:
• Transport lymph away from tissues, unlike blood vessels, which carry
blood to and from tissues.
• Begin as blind-ended sacs called lymph capillaries in the tissue spaces.
• Form larger vessels and trunks that drain into the lymphatic ducts
(right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct), returning lymph to the
venous system.
• Contain valves to prevent the backflow of lymph.
• Lymphatic Organs:
• Lymph Nodes:
• Small, bean-shaped structures that filter lymph and house
immune cells.
• Trap and destroy bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances.
• Swell in response to infections due to increased immune activity.
• Tonsils:
• Lymphatic tissue clusters in the pharynx area.
• Protect the body from inhaled or ingested pathogens.
• Spleen Located in the upper left abdominal cavity.
• Filters blood, removes old and damaged red blood cells, .
• Contains macrophages that engulf debris and damaged
cells.
• Thymus:
• Located behind the sternum, it is larger in children and
shrinks after puberty.
• The site of T-lymphocyte maturation, crucial for adaptive
immunity.
• Produces the hormone thymosin, which aids in the
development of lymphocytes in other lymphatic organs.
Diseases of lymphatic and
circulatory system
• Leukemia
• Leukemia is a type of cancer affecting the blood and bone marrow. It is
characterized by the excessive production of abnormal white blood
cells, which can interfere with the production of normal blood cells.
There are various types of leukemia, including acute lymphoblastic
leukemia (ALL), acute myeloid leukemia (AML), and chronic lymphocytic
leukemia (CLL). Symptoms may include fatigue, weight loss, frequent
infections, and easy bruising. Treatment can range from monitoring to
chemotherapy, radiation, and sometimes stem-cell transplants.
• Varicose Veins
• Varicose veins are swollen, twisted veins visible under the skin, often
appearing blue or dark purple. They occur when vein valves
malfunction, causing blood to flow backward or pool. Common
symptoms include aching legs and swollen ankles.
• Elephantiasis
• Elephantiasis, often caused by parasitic worms
transmitted by mosquitoes, results in significant
swelling of body parts, typically the limbs. The
condition arises from a blockage in the lymphatic
system, leading to an accumulation of lymph fluid. .
• Arrhythmias: Abnormal heart rhythms, which can be
too slow (bradycardia) or too fast (tachycardia).
• Aorta Disease and Marfan Syndrome: Conditions
affecting the aorta, the main artery carrying blood
from the heart.
• Congenital Heart Disease: Heart abnormalities present
from birth.
• Coronary Artery Disease: Narrowing or blockage of the
coronary arteries, often leading to heart attacks.
• Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT) and Pulmonary Embolism
(PE): Blood clots in deep veins or lungs.
• Heart Attack: Occurs when a blood clot blocks blood flow
to the heart, causing heart muscle damage.
• Heart Failure: When the heart cannot pump blood
effectively, leading to symptoms like shortness of breath
and fluid retention.
• Cardiomyopathy: Diseases affecting the heart muscle.
• Stroke
• Strokes occur when the blood supply to the brain is
interrupted. There are two main types:
• Ischemic Stroke: Caused by a blockage in a blood
vessel supplying the brain.
• Hemorrhagic Stroke: Caused by a ruptured blood
vessel in the brain, often due to high blood pressure.
• Both types can lead to permanent damage, depending
on the severity and location of the blockage or bleed.
The breathing system
• Your breathing system, or respiratory system, includes various organs
and structures that work together to bring oxygen into your body
and remove carbon dioxide. These organs include: Nose: The main
entry point for air, where it is filtered, warmed, and moistened.
• Pharynx (Throat): A muscular tube that carries air from the nose to
the larynx.
• Larynx (Voice Box): Connects the pharynx to the trachea and
contains the vocal cords.
• Trachea (Windpipe): A tube that directs air to the bronchi.
• Bronchi: Two large tubes that branch from the trachea into each
lung.
• Bronchioles: Smaller branches of the bronchi that lead to the alveoli.
• Alveoli: Tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs.
• Breathing involves two main processes: Inspiration
(Inhaling): When you breathe in, the diaphragm
contracts and flattens, pulling downward, and the
ribcage moves upward and outward. This increases
the volume of the chest cavity and decreases
pressure in the lungs, allowing air to flow in.
• Expiration (Exhaling): When you breathe out, the
diaphragm relaxes and moves upward into a dome
shape, and the ribcage moves downward and
inward. This decreases the volume of the chest cavity
and increases pressure in the lungs, forcing air out.
• Changes in chest volume during inspiration and
expiration:
• A. The intercostals muscles contract and the rib
cage pull upward.
• Because the pressure in the chest cavity is lower
than the
• atmospheric pressure, air moves into the lungs.
• B. The intercostals muscles relax and the rib cage
falls. Because the
• pressure in the chest cavity is higher than the
atmospheric pressure,
• Disorders of the Breathing System
• Breathing disorders can significantly impact oxygen
delivery to your tissues. Some common disorders
include:
• Bronchitis: Inflammation of the bronchial tubes,
causing narrowed airways and difficulty breathing.
• Emphysema: Damage to the alveoli, reducing
surface area for gas exchange and making
exhalation difficult.
• Bronchial Asthma: Inflammation of the bronchioles,
leading to difficulty exhaling and increased