Anatomy and

Physiology, 1e
Chapter 27: The
Reproductive Systems

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 Overview of Human
Reproductive Systems
Section 27.1
Learning Objectives 27.1.1–27.1.2

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 Sex and Gender (1 of 2)

• Sex—categories based on anatomy, chromosomes, or hormones

• Biological male and biological female
• Gender (gender identity)—indicates who a person knows themselves
to be
• May not match biological sex
• Gender expression—characteristics an individual displays to the world
• Clothing, demeanor
• Sexual orientation—describes whom an individual is sexually attracted
to
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 Sex and Gender (2 of 2)

• Sex is assigned at birth by a medical team

• Based on external genitalia
• Development and functioning of external and internal genitalia based
on hormonal signaling
• Requires hormones and presence of the hormone’s receptors to
occur
• All reproductive hormones present in human body
• Differ in amounts of hormones produced

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 Hormones of the Reproductive
Systems (1 of 3)
• GnRH - regulates the secretion of FSH and LH by the anterior pituitary
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)—regulates the development of
gametes
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• In ovaries, promotes the release of the eggs via ovulation
• In testes, promotes synthesis of testosterone
• Androgens—A group of hormones, including testosterone, that
influence gamete production and sex drive
• Also influence tissue function all over the body
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 Hormones of the Reproductive
Systems (2 of 3)
• Inhibin—part of the feedback system to regulate the anterior pituitary
• Inhibits FSH release
• Estrogens—influence gamete production, enhance sex drive
• Also influence tissue function throughout the body
• Progesterone—development of uterine lining
• Human choriogonadotropin (hCG)—promotes uterine changes
associated with pregnancy

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 Hormones of the Reproductive
Systems (3 of 3) (Figure 27.1)
• Hormones of the reproductive system
• Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone
(GnRH)
• Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
• Androgens
• Inhibin
• Estrogens
• Progesterone
• Human choriogonadotropin (hCG)
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 Development of
Reproductive Structures
Section 27.2
Learning Objectives 27.2.1–27.2.3

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 Embryonic Development

• Haploid egg and sperm merge genetic information to produce diploid

embryo
• Egg can only contribute X chromosome

• Sperm may contribute another X or Y chromosome

• Sex chromosomes guide development of reproductive system

• Development of organ systems begins soon after fertilization

• All systems development simultaneously

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 Development of Sexual Organs

• Indifferent stage—first 7 weeks of pregnancy

• Sexual organs developing inside embryo
• Sexual organs in all embryos are identical during this period
• Differentiated stage begins at week 7
• Testosterone secretion will promote development of biological
male sexual organs
• Without testosterone, biological female sexual organs will develop
• Ovaries or testes; clitoris or penis

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 Migration of Primordial Germ
Cells (Figure 27.2)
• Occurs during indifferent stage
• Begins process of reproductive
development
• Occurs around weeks 4–5 of gestation
• Primordial germ cells migrate into embryo
from yolk sac
• Germ cells migrate onto genital ridge
• Genital ridge will develop into tubes of
reproductive system
• Germ cells will become sperm or eggs
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Development of Internal Ducts (Figure
27.3)
• Mesonephric ducts and paramesonephric
ducts into internal reproductive organs
• One set will be destroyed, the other will
continue to develop
• Development depends on hormonal
signaling
• SRY region of Y chromosome promotes
production of testosterone and anti-
Mullerian hormone (AMH)
• No testosterone or AMH is produced
without Y chromosome
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 Mesonephric Ducts and
Paramesonephric Ducts (1 of 2)
(Figure
• Presence of testosterone and hCG promotes 27.4)
development of interstitial cells
• Secrete greater amounts of testosterone
• Testosterone promotes development of
mesonephric ducts and anti-Mullerian
hormones (AMH) stops development of
paramesonephric ducts
• Will become male reproductive structures
• Without testosterone and AMH,
paramesonephric ducts develop
• Will become female reproductive
structure
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 Mesonephric Ducts and
Paramesonephric Ducts (2 of 2)
• Mesonephric ducts develop into male reproductive structures
• Ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, seminiferous tubules
• Paramesonephric ducts develop into female internal reproductive structures
• Uterine tubes, uterus, part of vagina
• Without testosterone, meiosis of germ cells continues
• Will become oocytes
• Only one set of ducts will continue to develop
• Determined by hormonal signaling
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 Development of External Genitalia
(Figure 27.5)
• Genital folds, genital tubercle, and urogenital
sinus will develop into external genitalia
• Biological females
• Urogenital sinus = 2/3 of vagina
• Genital folds = labia
• Genital tubercle = clitoris
• Biological males
• Urogenital sinus = membranous and
prostatic urethra
• Genital folds = scrotum
• Genital tubercle = penis

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 Sexual Development at Puberty
(Figure 27.6)
• Puberty = stage of development in which
humans reach sexual maturity
• Prepared for reproduction
• Hormone release promotes changes
• Maturation of sexual organs
• Development of secondary sex
characteristics
• Onset can be influenced by genetics,
nutrition, environment, and psychological
stress

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 Breasts (Figure 27.7)

• Present in all individuals

• Increase in size due to presence of
estrogens
• Contain mammary glands—modified
sweat glands that secrete milk
• Clustered together in alveoli
• Alveoli connect to lactiferous sinuses
that connect to lactiferous ducts
• Lactiferous ducts allow milk to exit
via nipple at surface

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Anatomy of Biological
Females
Section 27.3
Learning Objectives 27.3.1–27.3.6

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 Female External Genitalia (Figure
27.8)
• Vulva—collective term for biological female
external genitalia
• Mons pubis—fat pad that covers and
protects pubic symphysis
Labia majora—larger, hair-covered, more
external folds of skin
• Labia minora—inner, hairless folds of
skin
• Clitoris—biological female equivalent of
penis
 Contains nerves for sexual
sensation and orgasm

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 Vagina (Figure 27.9)

• Entrance and exit of the biological

female reproductive tract
• Muscular canal
• Walls contain rugae
• Allow expansion during intercourse
and childbirth
• Acidic pH helps protect against infection
• Acid produced by Lactobacillus sp.

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 Ovaries

• Paired biological female gonads located in pelvic cavity

• Produce oocytes (eggs)
• Held in place by mesovarium, broad ligament, suspensory ligament,
and ovarian ligament
• Covered by ovarian surface epithelium and tunica albuginea
• Superficial ovarian cortex contains ovarian follicles
• Deeper ovarian medulla contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, and
nerves

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The Ovaries and Associated
Ligaments (Figure 27.10)

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 The Uterine Tubes

• Located next to ovaries but not directly connected to them

• Passageway for oocyte to reach uterus
• Divided into infundibulum, ampulla, and isthmus
• Fimbriae in infundibulum help create current to sweep eggs into
uterine tubes
• Cilia and smooth muscle contractions continue movement through
uterine tubes
• Fertilization usually occurs in ampulla

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 Uterus and Cervix (Figure 27.12)

• Hollow, muscular organ located in

pelvic cavity inferior to bladder
• Site of implantation and development
of an embryo
• Three regions: fundus, body, and
cervix
• Cervix is narrow and plugged with
mucus

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 Round Ligament and Uterosacral
Ligament (Figure 27.11)
• Multiple ligaments hold uterus in position

• Broad ligament – extends laterally to anchor

uterus to pelvic wall
• Round ligament – attaches near uterine
tubes and extends inferiorly to labia majora
• Uterosacral ligament – connects cervix to
pelvic wall

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 Layers of the Uterine Wall (Figure
27.13)
• Three layers: perimetrium
(outermost), myometrium
(middle), and endometrium
(innermost)
• Endometrium begins to
thicken monthly at puberty in
anticipation of implantation
• Sloughs off if implantation
does not occur
(menses/menstruation)

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The Ovarian and Uterine
Cycles
Section 27.4
Learning Objectives 27.4.1–27.4.7

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 Reproductive Cycles

• Ovarian and uterine cycles coordinate reproductive functions in

biological females
• Events coordinated to increase chances of pregnancy
• Ovarian cycle produces oocytes
• Uterine cycle ensures uterus is prepared to support embryo/fetus if
fertilization occurs
• Timing of cycles ranges between 21–35 days
• 28 days used as an average

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 The Ovarian Cycle

• A series of hormone-driven events

• Oocyte development includes the following processes:
• Folliculogenesis

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 Oogenesis (1 of 2) (Figure 27.14)

• The production of oocytes that occurs in

the ovary
• Begins with oogonia formed during
fetal development
• Mitosis forms additional oogonia
• Oogonia begin meiosis I during fetal
development and form primary
oocytes
• Development pauses at this point prior
to birth
• During puberty, a few primary oocytes
attempt to complete meiosis I monthly
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 Oogenesis (2 of 2) (Figure 27.14)

• Surge of LH resumes meiosis I in

primary oocytes
• Produces secondary oocyte and
first polar body
• First polar body will disintegrate
• Secondary oocyte continues through
meiosis II
• Ovulated secondary oocyte
pauses development at
metaphase II
• If fertilized by sperm, meiosis II is
completed and a zygote is formed
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 Fertilization (Figure 27.15)

• Occurs when nucleus of sperm enters

cytoplasm of egg
• Forms diploid cell called a zygote

• Zygote = fertilized egg

• After fertilization, egg completes meiosis II

• Second polar body formed to get rid of

unnecessary chromosomes

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 Folliculogenesis (1 of 2) (Figure
27.16)
• Eggs develop inside of ovarian follicles
• Folliculogenesis is the process of growth and
development of ovarian follicles
• Primordial follicles—follicular state at the
time of birth
• Single layer of granulosa cells
surrounds oocyte
• Primary follicles—begin to form at puberty
monthly due to hormonal changes
• Will continue development to form
secondary follicles

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 Folliculogenesis (2 of 2) (Figure
27.16)
• Secondary follicles—thick layer of
granulosa cells; covered by theca
cells
• Tertiary follicles—contain large
antrum filled with follicular fluid
• One per month ruptures during
ovulation
• Remaining follicles will undergo
atresia
• Atretic follicles—dying follicles

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 Hormonal Control of Ovarian Cycle (1
of 2)
• Follicular phase
• GnRH—stimulates release of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary
• FSH—promotes development and growth of follicles
• LH—promotes estrogen production by theca and granulosa cells
• Negative feedback inhibits GnRH, FSH, and LH release, leading to atresia
of smaller follicles
• Ovulation
• Surviving tertiary follicle releases higher levels of estrogen and causes LH
to be released in a surge
• LH works synergistically with estrogen to cause ovulation
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 The Follicular Phase (Figure 27.17)

• FSH responsible for promoting development

of ovarian follicles
• Tertiary follicles will increase in size and
secrete estrogens and progesterone
• Estrogens inhibit FSH release causing
some follicles to enter atresia
• Hormones also used to coordinate
development of uterus and uterine cycle
• One dominant follicle will survive

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 Triggering Ovulation (Figure 27.18)

• Surviving follicle secretes large

amounts of estrogen
• A positive feedback mechanism
• In response, anterior pituitary release a
surge of LH
• LH surge leads to full maturation of
follicle and ovulation

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 Ovulation (Figure 27.19)

• LH surge causes preovulatory

follicle to rupture
• Enzymes break down wall of
ovary at site of bulging follicle
• Pressure from antrum causes
wall to break
• Egg and antral fluid are
released from ovary into
uterine tube (fallopian tube)

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 Hormonal Control of Ovarian Cycle (2
of 2) (Figure 27.20)
• Luteal or post-ovulatory phase
• LH surge causes changes in granulosa
and theca cells called leutinization
• Transforms remnants of follicle into
corpus luteum
• Releases progesterone that
maintains uterus in case of
implantation
• If implantation does not occur, corpus
luteum dies
• Degrades to form corpus albicans

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 Ovarian and Anterior Pituitary
Hormones (Figure 27.21)
• Follicular phase
• FSH and LH promote
development of ovarian follicles
• Developing follicles release
increasing amounts of estrogen
• Luteal phase
• Secretion of FSH and LH decrease
slowing follicular development
• Corpus luteum secretes estrogen
and progesterone

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 The Uterine Cycle

• Series of changes in the lining of the uterus caused by changing

hormonal levels
• Uterus is sensitive to estrogens and progesterone from ovary
• Occurs simultaneously with ovarian cycle
• Divided into three phases:
1. Menses phase
2. Proliferative phase
3. Secretory phase

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 Menses Phase

• Coincides with early days of follicular phase of the ovarian cycle

• Endometrial lining is shed during this phase
• Occurs when progesterone, FSH, and LH levels are low; low
progesterone level is due to degradation of corpus luteum
• Averages 5 days, lasts ~2 to 7 days, but can be longer

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 Proliferative Phase

• Begins as tertiary follicles secrete estrogen

• Endometrial lining responds to increasing estrogen levels by
proliferating (getting thicker)
• Endometrium is preparing for possible implantation of zygote

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 Secretory Phase

• Associated changes create a more hospitable environment for

implantation
• Progesterone from corpus luteum prevents menstruation
• Vaginal acidity decreases
• Endometrial glands secrete nutrient-rich mucus for nourishment of
a possible implanted zygote
• Blood flow to endometrium increases

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 Hormonal Influence of Uterine Lining
(Figure 27.22)
• Proliferative phase
• Estrogen from ovarian follicles causes
proliferation of endometrium
• Secretory phase
• Progesterone from corpus luteum
maintains endometrial lining
• Menses
• Progesterone secretion decreases as corpus
luteum degrades
• Stratum functionalis of endometrium is shed
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Anatomy of Biological
Males
Section 27.5
Learning Objectives 27.5.1–27.5.7

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Male External Genitalia (Figure 27.23)

• Includes penis and scrotum

• Penis serves as passageway for urine
or semen to exit body
• Contains spongy/penile urethra
• Semen is a mixture of sperm and
additional fluids for their support
• Scrotum houses the testes

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 The Penis (1 of 2)

• Biological male homologue of the clitoris

• Erectile tissue that fills with blood during
sexual arousal
• Root—internal component
• Shaft—rod-like column of penis
• Contains corpora cavernosa and corpus
spongiosum
• Glans—expanded head at distal end
• Covered by foreskin in uncircumcised
males
• Urethra—tubular organ that runs down
entire length of penis; transports urine and
semen
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 The Penis (2 of 2) (Figure 27.24A and
27.24C)
• Shaft of penis composed of three
pieces of erectile tissue:
• Two corpora cavernosa
• One corpus spongiosum
• Urethra runs through
corpus spongiosum

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 Scrotum and Testes (Figure 27.25A)

• Scrotum houses the testes

• Homologue of female labia majora
• Sac-like pouch covered with skin
• Allows testicular temperature to be
lower than body temperature
• Optimizes sperm production
• Raphe = site of fusion of genital
folds during embryonic
development
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 Regulation of Testicular Temperature
(Figure 27.25B)
• Dartos and cremaster muscles
help lift or drop testes as
necessary to regulate
temperature
• Temperature regulated for
optimum sperm production

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 Spermatic Cord (Figure 27.25C)

• Structures that enter and exit

testes travel through spermatic
cord
• Testicular artery
• Testicular veins
• Lymphatic vessels
• Nerves
• Ductus deferens

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 Inguinal Canal (Figure 27.24B)

• Structures that enter or exit the

pelvic cavity from the scrotum
travel through the inguinal canal
• Creates a natural weak spot
in anterior wall of pelvis
• Increased risk of inguinal
hernias in biological males

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 Testes (1 of 2) (Figure 27.26)

• The biological male gonads that produce

sperm and sex hormones
• Covered by:
• Tunica vaginalis = serous membrane
• Tunica albuginea = dense connective
tissue that divides each testis into
lobules
• Seminiferous tubules—site where sperm
production occurs
• Sperm move through rete testis after
production by seminiferous tubules
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 Testes (2 of 2) (Figure 27.24A)

• Sperm exit testes via efferent ductules

and enter epididymis
• Sperm fully mature in epididymis
• Mature sperm exit epididymis and travel
through ductus deferens
• Ductus deferens enters pelvic cavity
through inguinal canal
• Crosses over superior portion of
bladder and enters prostate gland
• Connects with urethra within
prostate gland
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 Glands of Male Reproductive System

• Majority of semen produced by accessory glands

• Seminal vesicles—located on posterior of bladder
• Secrete 60% of semen volume
• Secretion contains fructose for ATP production, which provides
energy for swimming
• Prostate gland—located inferior to bladder
• Secretes alkaline, milky fluid to coagulate sperm
• Bulbourethral glands—located at posterior of perineum
• Lubricate urethra for passage of semen
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Spermatogenesis and
Spermiogenesis
Section 27.6
Learning Objectives 27.6.1–27.6.3

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 Sperm Production

• Biological male reproductive system responsible for gamete and sex

hormone production
• Does not support embryonic development like biological female
• Sperm production is divided into two processes:
• Spermatogenesis – formation of haploid cell
• Spermiogenesis – formation of mature sperm cell
• Interstitial cells secrete androgens that promote both processes
• Nurse cells support process of sperm production
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 Spermatogenesis

• Production of haploid sperm gamete cells through mitosis then

meiosis
• Spermatogonia undergo mitosis to form two identical daughter cells
• One daughter cell replenishes the supply of spermatogonia
• Other daughter cell becomes a primary spermatocyte and
undergoes meiosis I
• Produces two haploid secondary spermatocyte cells
• Secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II to yield four
haploid spermatids
• Spermatids will undergo spermiogenesis to become mature
sperm
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Spermatogenesis (Figure 27.27)

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 Spermiogenesis

• The maturation and differentiation to produce functional sperm

• Last stage of spermatogenesis, in which spermatids develop into
sperm
• Spermatids reduce the amount of cytoplasm they contain
• Flagellum elongates to allow them to swim
• Continue to move through epididymis to mature fully and gain the
ability to move
• Sperm are stored in tail of epididymis until ejaculation occurs

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 Sperm (Figure 27.28)

• Mature sperm are streamlined for

speed and travel
• Head region – contains haploid
nucleus
• Acrosome – contains enzymes to
breakdown membrane of egg
• Midpiece – contains mitochondria
• Produce ATP that power flagellum
• Tail – flagellum used for motion

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 Interstitial Cells (Figure 27.29)

• Located between seminiferous tubules within

testes
• Responsible for testosterone secretion
• Levels increase during puberty
• Promotes muscle development, bone growth,
skin and hair characteristics, behavior, and
libido
• Compare to biological females: Small amounts of
testosterone produced by ovaries and adrenal
glands
• Promotes libido
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 Hormonal Control of Male
Reproductive System (Figure 27.30)
• Testosterone
• Secreted by interstitial cells within
testes
• Release stimulated by luteinizing
hormone (LH)
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)—
stimulates development of sperm via
spermatogenesis
• Inhibin—inhibits FSH release

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 Sex (Coitus)
Section 27.7
Learning Objectives 27.7.1–27.7.3

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 Stages of Coitus (1 of 2)

• Sexual responses are general grouped into three stages:

1. Excitement and Plateau—body prepares for or engages in sexual
activity
• Stimulated by thoughts, touch, or dreams
• Systemic myotonia occurs (increase in muscle tension
throughout body)
• Nitric oxide causes vasodilation in genitalia
• Blood engorges genitalia
• Urethra is closed off

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 Stages of Coitus (2 of 2)

• Orgasm—brief, intense response at end of excitement/plateau phase

• Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) increases HR, blood pressure, and
breathing rate
• Increase in oxytocin levels and pelvic muscle contractions
Oxytocin promotes social bonding
Pelvic contractions are thought to aid movement of sperm toward
egg
• Resolution—follows the orgasm stage
• Parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) dominates
• Longer refractory period prevents erection in biological males
• If orgasm does not occur, resolution does not occur

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 Pregnancy, Birth,
Lactation
Section 27.8
Learning Objectives 27.8.1–27.8.10

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 Fertilization

• Event in which a sperm encounters an egg and penetrates it; the

genetic material from the two gametes is combined
• Sperm capacitation occurs after sperm enter vagina or uterus
• Enzymes in the vaginal and uterine fluids degrade acrosome
covering that prevents premature rupture
• Sperm gain the ability to penetrate egg

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 Acrosomal Reactions (Figure 27.31)

• Acrosomal reactions lead to release

of enzymes that allow penetration
of egg
• Sperm must penetrate zona
pellucida to fertilize egg
• First sperm to reach the egg
helps break down zona pellucida
for other sperm
• Eventually one sperm will fuse
its nucleus with the egg
• Zygote is formed by fusion of nuclei

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 Preembryonic Stage

• Zygote begins to divide but is not increasing in size

• Cells along outer rim become trophoblast
• Will form placenta that attaches to endometrium during
implantation
• Adhesive molecules of uterus and preembryo will allow implantation
• Implanted zygote is called an embryo

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 Events After Fertilization (Figure
27.32)
• Preembryonic stage = zygote divides
but does not increase in size
• Preembryo will continue to move
along uterine tube toward uterus
• Trophoblast will develop on outer rim
• Will become placenta
• Preembryo will implant on uterine
wall
• Occurs if adhesive molecules
present

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 Development of Placenta

• Embryo will require more nutrients than the uterus produces

• Arteries within the uterine wall connect to placental capillaries to

supply umbilical cord
• Only fetal blood travels within fetus, umbilical cord, and placenta

• Mother will supply oxygen and nutrients and remove carbon dioxide
and wastes for developing embryo

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 The Placenta (Figure 27.33)

• Cytotrophoblasts invade spiral arteries

of uterus
• Spiral arteries enlarge

• Other cytotrophoblasts begin to form

network of fetal capillaries of placenta
• Attaches to fetus at umbilical cord

• Maternal blood vessels and blood

volume continue to increase to meet
fetal demands

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 Hormones Levels During Pregnancy
(Figure 27.34)
• hCG is secreted by preembryo early in
pregnancy
• Placenta begins to secrete hCG at 10-12
weeks
• Estrogen levels substantially higher by end
of pregnancy
• Secreted by placenta
• Promotes mitosis and growth of tissues
in mother and fetus
• Progesterone from placenta inhibits uterine
contractions
• Levels decline closer to time of labor
and birth
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 Labor and Childbirth

• Labor consists of events that lead to childbirth

• Oxytocin receptors in uterus increase in number and oxytocin release increases
• Three stages of labor:
1. Dilation stage—cervix opens and thins as fetal head descends lower
• Driven by oxytocin release stimulating uterine contractions
2. Expulsion stage—expulsion of the fetus
• Baby’s head and body pass through cervix and vaginal canal until outside of
mother
3. Placental stage—uterine contractions continue until placenta is also expelled
from mother

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 Postpartum

• First six weeks after birth

• Uterus returns to pre-pregnancy size
• Uterine cells self-digest via autolysis
• Eliminates cells of uterus to allow it to return to original size

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 Lactation

• Production of milk promoted by prolactin

• Prolactin release stimulated by nursing

• Mothers that do not breastfeed will cease to produce milk

• Prolactin release also inhibits estrogen secretion

• Decreases mitotic rate to help uterus return to original size

• May decrease mitosis in breast tissue and help prevent breast

cancers

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 Summary

• By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Describe the gross anatomy of the male and female reproductive
systems.
• Discuss the ovarian and uterine cycles.
• Discuss spermiogenesis and spermatogenesis.
• Discuss the stages of coitus.
• Discuss pregnancy and childbirth.

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duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 79