DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Chapter Three
3. Water Characteristics
and Sampling
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1 BY: Sebilewongel M.
“W Sunday, January 26, 2025
3. Water Characteristics and Sampling: Introduction
• To assess the level of contamination and type of treatment
required, water require proper and reliable examinations
and analytic measurements i.e. to plan and implement the
type and extent of treatment, natural waters must be
analyzed for physical, chemical and microbiological
parameters.
• Even after appropriate treatment further examination and
laboratory testing is required to confirm its suitability for
different uses.
Sampling
• Sampling is the first essential step in assessing the quality of water.
• To obtain an accurate representation of the composition and nature of
water, it is first essential to obtain a truly representative sample of the
source.
• A representative sample that highlights the exact condition existing
in water must be collected.
• After collection, the sample must be handled and preserved carefully
to prevent any alteration in physical, chemical, and biological state.
Sampling….
• Accuracy and reliability of analytical results depend on the
sample collection program.
• The time, location, type, and frequency of sample collection
must be decided according to the source of water.
Generally, two types of samples are collected:
Grab
Composite
A grab sample is one collected at a particular time and
place.
It represents the condition of the water at the time of sampling.
Grab sampling is preferred when the composition of water is
Sampling…
• In addition to this grab sampling is required for
certain tests that must be performed at the sampling
site itself, e.g.
• chlorine residual, dissolved oxygen, temperature,
toxic gas emission etc.
• A composite sample is a number of grab samples collected at
definite intervals of time over a fixed period (often a 24h
period) and mixed.
• This sample represents the average characteristic of water over
that particular period of time.
• The composite sample is preferred in the following
circumstances:
When the average water conditions over a period of time is
needed. Plant efficiencies are to be estimated.
Sample handling and preservation
• Sample handling and preservations are the most important
aspects of water analysis. Water samples are collected for a
variety of purposes:
To assess the degree of treatment
To evaluate performance of a treatment facility
To know extent of pollutions etc.
• When a sample is collected, during transportation physical,
chemical, and biological, changes may occur that can alter
the sample composition and produce false results.
Sample handling and preservation
• To overcome this, the samples should be handled
carefully and preserved if the analysis is to be
performed in the laboratory, rather than at the site.
Equipments and Reagents
• High quality laboratory glassware is essential for all
analytical purposes.
• For general laboratory use, the most suitable material
for glassware is borosilicate glass commercially
known as Pyrex.
• This material is resistant to all chemicals and can
withstand temperatures.
Sample handling and preservation…
• The most common glassware used in water testing
laboratories are beakers, flasks, funnels, cylinders, burettes,
pipettes, reagent bottle, test tubes, and culture tubes.
• Sampling bottles used for the collection of water samples
should be of good quality glass or plastic and free from toxic
substances.
3.1 Physical characteristics of Water
• Physical parameters define those characteristics of water
that respond to the sense of sight, touch, or smell.
Suspended solids, Turbidity, color, taste, odour and
temperature fall into this category.
3.2. Chemical characteristics of water
• Water has been called the universal solvent and chemical
parameters are related to the solvent capabilities of water.
Examination of water in terms of its chemical constituents
involves the determination of:
3.2. Chemical characteristics of water…
Inorganic and Nonmetallic constituents which may include
PH, Alkalinity, Acidity, Hardness, Oxygen, Boron, Chloride,
Cyanide, Fluoride, Silicate, sulfate.
Metallic constituents such as Calcium, Magnesium, Iron,
Sodium, Potassium.
Nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus.
Organic Constituents e.g. BOD, and COD.
The source, significance and method of measurement
for some chemical constituents of water are described
3.3 Biological Characteristics of water
• Analysis of water for all the known pathogens would be a
very time consuming and expensive task.
• Because the number of pathogenic organisms present in
polluted water are few and difficult to isolate and identify.
• Thus the purity of water is checked using indicator
organisms.
• An indicator organism is one whose presence presumes
that contamination has occurred and suggests the nature
and extent of the contaminant.
Biological Characteristics of water…
• Most of the waterborne pathogens are introduced through fecal
contamination of water.
• Thus, any organism native to the intestinal tract of humans would
be a good indicator organism.
• The intestinal track of human being contains countless rod -shaped
bacteria known as coliform organisms.
• Each person discharges from 100 to 400 billion coliform
organisms per day, in addition to other kinds of bacteria.
• Escherichia coli are found mostly in the intestinal tract of warm
blooded animals and are exerted in large quantity with feces.
Biological Characteristics of water…
• Fecal coliform organisms are nonpathogenic and are
believed to have a longer survival time outside the animal
body than do most pathogens.
• Thus, coliform bacteria are usually used as indicators of the
sanitary quality of drinking water.
• The presence of coliform bacteria is taken as an indication
of that pathogenic organism may also be present, and the
absence of coliform organisms is taken as an indication of
that water is free from disease causing organisms.
Potable Water Standards
• Municipal water required for domestic uses, particularly the water
required for drinking, must be colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
• It should be free from turbidity, and excessive or toxic chemical
compounds. Harmless micro-organisms and radio activity must be
absent.
• The quality of water for municipal supplies is, therefore, generally
controlled throughout the world, and even World Health
Organization (W.H.O) has laid down its international standards,
specifying the minimum water quality requirements.
• When these water standards are not fulfilled, the water may not be
100 percent fit for drinking, and may be termed as “contaminated.”
Potable Water Standards…
•Drinking water standards around the world are in a continuous state
of evolution as more information becomes available and is evaluated.
• No single standard for drinking water quality suffices for all
countries but there is a considerable degree of agreement on
contaminants and their allowable concentrations.
•The world health organization has established minimum criteria for
drinking water that all nations are urged to meet. These standards are
listed in Table below.
• Countries with more advanced technology generally have standards
that exceed this quality.
Important Consideration in Setting
National Drinking Water Quality
Standards
• The setting of drinking water quality standards requires
careful consideration of a number of very important factors
that must be observed. These include:
• Health Consideration
• Availability of water of better quality
• Aesthetic Consideration.
Table 5.2: Drinking water standards
Concentrations in mg/l
Chemical constituents
WHO Ethiopia
Permissible limit Maximum limit Highest Desirable Maximum permissible
Colour (TCU) 15 50 22 50
Turbidity < 5 NTU 25 7 25
PH 7-8.5 6.5 – 9.2 7-8.5 6.5 – 9.2
Hardness 75 110 392 500
Ammonia 1.5 2
Arsenic 0.01 0.2 0.01 0.05
Calcium 75 200 75 200
Chloride 200 300 533 600
Copper 1 1.5 2
Iron 0.3 1 0.4 1
Magnesium 50 150 50 150
Manganese 0.1 0.5 0.13 0.8
Phenol 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002
Sulfate 200 400 483
Zink 5 15 6 15
Total Solids 500 1500 500 1776
Coliform bacteria nil 1 per 100ml nil 10
THANK YOU !!!
WATER IS FOR LIFE
WATER IS LIFE