CN 211: Computer

Networking Protocols

Example of Layered Model and OSI Model

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Examples of Layered Model.
• The most popular layered model are:-
— OSI reference Model
— TCP/IP Model.

• Other layered model are:-

— IBM Systems Network Architecture (IBM SNA)
— Digital Equipment Corporation’s (DEC, now part of HP)
—DNA (Digital Network Architecture)

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OSI - The Model
• Open Systems Interconnection

• Developed by the International Standardization

Organization (ISO)

• Seven layers

• A theoretical system delivered too late!

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OSI - The Model
• Each layer performs a subset of the required
communication functions.

• Each layer relies on the next lower layer to

perform more primitive functions.

• Each layer provides services to the next higher

layer.

• Changes in one layer should not require changes

in other layers

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OSI/ISO reference Model
• This line of reasoning led IS0 in 1977 to establish
a subcommittee to develop such an architecture.

• The result was the Open Systems Interconnection

(OSI) reference model.

• Although the essential elements of the model

were put into place quickly, the final IS0
standard, IS0 7498, was not published until 1984.
OSI/ISO reference Model
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a
reference model developed by ISO (International
Organization for Standardization) in 1984, as a
conceptual framework of standards for
communication in the network across different
equipment and applications by different vendors.

• It is now considered the primary architectural model

for inter-computing and internetworking
communications.

• Most of the network communication protocols used

today have a structure based on the OSI model.
OSI/ISO reference Model
• The OSI model has seven layers. The principles
that were applied to arrive at the seven layers
can be briefly summarized as follows:
— A layer should be created where a different abstraction
is needed.
— Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
— The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye
toward defining internationally standardized protocols.
— The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the
information flow across the interfaces.
— The number of layers should be large enough that
distinct functions need not be thrown together in the
same layer out of necessity and small enough that the
architecture does not become unwieldy.
OSI/ISO reference Model
• The OSI isn’t a physical model, though. Rather,
it’s a set of guidelines that application developers
can use to create and implement applications
that run on a network.

• It also provides a framework for creating and

implementing networking standards, devices,
and internetworking schemes.
OSI/ISO reference Model
• Also note that the OSI model itself is not a network
architecture because it does not specify the exact
services and protocols to be used in each layer.

• It just tells what each layer should do.

• However, ISO has also produced standards for all

the layers, although these are not part of the
reference model itself.

• Each one has been published as a separate

international standard.
OSI/ISO reference Model
• The OSI reference model has seven layers:-
— Application layer (layer 7)
— Presentation layer (layer 6)
— Session layer (layer 5)
— Transport layer (layer 4)
— Network layer (layer 3)
— Data Link layer (layer 2)
— Physical layer (layer 1)
OSI/ISO reference Model
• The OSI 7 layers model has clear characteristics
at each layer.

• Basically, layers 7 through 4 deal with end to

end communications between data source and
destinations, while layers 3 to 1 deal with
communications between network devices.

• On the other hand, the seven layers of the OSI

model can be divided into two groups:-
— Upper layers (layers 7, 6 & 5) and
— Lower layers(layers 4, 3, 2, 1).
OSI/ISO reference Model
• The upper layers of the OSI model deal with application
issues and generally are implemented only in software.

• The highest layer, the application layer, is closest to the

end user.

The upper layers

OSI/ISO reference Model
• The lower layers of the OSI model handle data
transport issues.

• The network layer and the data link layer are

implemented in hardware and software. The
lowest layer, the physical layer, is closest to the
physical network medium (the wires, for
example) and is responsible for placing data on
the medium.
OSI/ISO reference Model

The lower layers

OSI/ISO reference Model

Communication between computers in a

network
OSI/ISO reference Model
• Information being transferred from a software
application in one computer to an application in
another proceeds through the OSI layers.

• For example, if a software application in computer

A has information to pass to a software application
in computer B, the application program in
computer A need to pass the information to the
application layer (Layer 7) of computer A, which
then passes the information to the presentation
layer (Layer 6), which relays the data to the
session layer (Layer 5), and so on all the way down
to the physical layer (Layer 1).
OSI/ISO reference Model
• At the physical layer, the data is placed on the
physical network medium and is sent across the
medium to computer B.

• The physical layer of computer B receives the

data from the physical medium, and then its
physical layer passes the information up to the
data link layer (Layer 2), which relays it to the
network layer (Layer 3), and so on, until it reaches
the application layer (Layer 7) of computer B.

• Finally, the application layer of computer B

passes the information to the recipient application
program to complete the communication process.
OSI/ISO reference Model
• The seven OSI layers use various forms of control
information to communicate with their peer
layers in other computer systems.

• This control information consists of specific

requests and instructions that are exchanged
between peer OSI layers.

• Headers and Trailers of data at each layer are the

two basic forms to carry the control information.
OSI/ISO reference Model
• Headers and Trailers are prepended to data that
has been passed down from upper layers.

• Each layer may add a Header and a Trailer to its

Data, which consists of the upper layer’s Header,
Trailer and Data as it proceeds through the
layers.

• The Headers contain information that specifically

addresses layer-to-layer communication.

• Headers, trailers and data are relative concepts,

depending on the layer that analyzes the
OSI/ISO reference Model
• For example, the Transport Header (TH) contains
information that only the Transport layer sees.

• All other layers below the Transport layer pass the

Transport Header as part of their Data.

• At the network layer, an information unit consists of

a Layer 3 header (NH) and data.

• At the data link layer, however, all the information

passed down by the network layer (the Layer 3
header and the data) is treated as data.
OSI/ISO reference Model
• In other words, the data portion of an information
unit at a given OSI layer potentially can contain
headers, trailers, and data from all the higher
layers. This is known as encapsulation.

Data encapsulation at each layer

OSI/ISO reference Model
• For example, if computer A has data from a
software application to send to computer B, the
data is passed to the application layer.

• The application layer in computer A then

communicates any control information required by
the application layer in computer B by prepending
a header to the data.

• The resulting message unit, which includes a

header, the data and may be a trailer, is passed to
the presentation layer, which prepends its own
header containing control information intended for
the presentation layer in computer B.
OSI/ISO reference Model
• The message unit grows in size as each layer
prepends its own header and trailer containing
control information to be used by its peer layer in
computer B.

• At the physical layer, the entire information unit is

transmitted through the network medium.

• The physical layer in computer B receives the

information unit and passes it to the data link layer.

• The data link layer in computer B then reads the

control information contained in the header
prepended by the data link layer in computer A.
OSI/ISO reference Model
• The header and the trailer are then removed, and the
remainder of the information unit is passed to the
network layer.

• Each layer performs the same actions:-

— The layer reads the header and trailer from its peer layer
— Strips it off and
— Passes the remaining information unit to the next higher
layer.

• After the application layer performs these actions, the

data is passed to the recipient software application in
computer B, in exactly the form in which it was
transmitted by the application in computer A.
OSI/ISO reference Model
• One OSI layer communicates with another layer to
make use of the services provided by the second
layer.

• The services provided by adjacent layers help a given

OSI layer communicate with its peer layer in other
computer systems.

• A given layer in the OSI model generally

communicates with three other OSI layers:-
— The layer directly above it
— The layer directly below it and
— Its peer layer in other networked computer systems.
OSI/ISO reference Model
• The data link layer in computer A, for example,
communicates with the network layer of computer
A, the physical layer of computer A and the data
link layer in computer B on the figure below.

Data communication between peer

7-Layer OSI Model

Layer 7 Application Layer • Layers 1-4 relate to

Layer 6 Presentation Layer communications
technology.
Layer 5 Session Layer
• Layers 5-7 relate to
Layer 4 Transport Layer user applications.
Layer 3 Network Layer

Layer 2 Data Link Layer

Layer 1 Physical Layer

Communications subnet boundary

 Layer 7: Application Layer

• Level at which applications

access network services.
— Represents services that directly
support software applications for
file transfers, database access, and
electronic mail etc.
 Layer 6: Presentation Layer

• Related to representation of
transmitted data
— Translates different data
representations from the Application
layer into uniform standard format
• Providing services for secure
efficient data transmission
— e.g. data encryption, and data
compression.
 Layer 5: Session Layer

• Allows two applications on different

computers to establish, use, and end
a session.
— e.g. file transfer, remote login
• Establishes dialog control
— Regulates which side transmits, plus
when and how long it transmits.
• Performs token management and
synchronization.
 Layer 4: Transport Layer
• Manages transmission packets
— Repackages long messages when
necessary into small packets for
transmission
— Reassembles packets in correct order to
get the original message.
• Handles error recognition and recovery.
— Transport layer at receiving acknowledges
packet delivery.
— Resends missing packets
 Layer 3: Network Layer
• Manages addressing/routing of data within the
subnet
— Addresses messages and translates logical
addresses and names into physical addresses.
— Determines the route from the source to the
destination computer
— Manages traffic problems, such as switching, routing,
and controlling the congestion of data packets.
• Routing can be:
— Based on static tables
— determined at start of each session
— Individually determined for each packet, reflecting
the current network load.
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
 Packages raw bits from the
Physical layer into frames (logical,
structured packets for data).
 Provides reliable transmission of
frames
 It waits for an acknowledgment
from the receiving computer.
 Retransmits frames for which
acknowledgement not received
 Layer 1: Physical Layer
• Transmits bits from one computer to another
• Regulates the transmission of a stream of
bits over a physical medium.
• Defines how the cable is attached to the
network adapter and what transmission
technique is used to send data over the
cable. Deals with issues like
— The definition of 0 and 1, e.g. how many volts
represents a 1, and how long a bit lasts?
— Whether the channel is simplex or duplex?
— How many pins a connector has, and what the
function of each pin is?