AIRCRAFT
TECHNICAL &
GENERAL
Airframe configuration
Biplane
Monoplane
High wing
Mid wing
Low wing
Canard
Tricycle
Tail dragger
Girder construction
Monocoque & Semi Monocoque
Fuselage construction
Wing construction
Wing construction
D-Spar wing construction
Wing tank construction
Internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engine
Types of IC Engines
Radial Engine
Crankshaft
The four strokes
Gas inlet and outlet (Exhaust)
The four cycles
Carburetion
Fuel flow
Vapour lock
If Detonation is suspected:
1. Enrich Mixture
2. Reduce pressure in cylinders (Throttle back)
3. Cool Cylinders (Increase airspeed)
NOTE:
Detonation usually occurs in all cylinders as
It is a result of fuel-air mixture, temperature
and pressure, whereas Pre-ignition can exist in
one cylinder due to its condition (being too hot
or having carbon deposits)
Dry sump system
Wet sump system
Dipstick
Oil Press
sender
Filter
Oil Press
Regulating
valve
Scavenger Bypass/ Oil Temp
pump thermostat sender
Cooler Pressure
pump
Hydraulic Fluids
DTD 585
This is a widely used fluid that is coloured red, its
mineral based and therefore requires the system to be
fitted with synthetic rubber seals.
CASTOR or VEGETABLE
These as the name suggest are made from natural
compounds, thus require only rubber seals in the
system and are generally coloured yellow
(colourless).
SKYDROL
Another popular fluid that is coloured purple, and due
to its ingredients requires the system to have butyl
rubber seals.
Hydraulic systems are based on the principle that liquids
are NOT COMPRESSIBLE, and that the transfer of such
liquids can be used to transfer Energy / Force
Hydraulic Theory
The movement of the piston will depend on the force
that is applied on the piston as a result of fluid
pressure. The force will be equal to the fluid pressure
(P) multiplied by the area over which the pressure is
applied it’s the area of the piston (A). Thus the
resultant mechanical force F = P x A.
Hydraulic Theory
The basis of a closed hydraulic system consists of a
small piston that applies a force over a area. This
results in a pressure P being transmitted through the
liquid. At the other end of the system is a larger piston
of area. Since the pressure experienced on the face of
this piston is the same as that generated by the smaller
one, it follows that the resultant mechanical force on
the larger piston is equal to the pressure P multiplied
by area. Thus the force F2 is larger than the original
force F1. In effect, the force has been magnified by the
ability of the system to transmit the pressure P.
F=PxA
Brake pedal pressure Higher actuator pressure
F=PxA
Non-return valve (NRV)
Electricity supply
Electricity supply
Circuit protection devices
Lead Acid Batteries
Landing Gear
“ You know you’ve forgotten to lower the undercarriage when it
takes full power to taxi back to the terminal”
Landing gear
Oleo struts
SHOCK ABSORBER
The shock absorber has two primary functions, the
first to absorb the compression loads imposed by the
impact of landing, and the second to dampen the
tendency to recoil, that is to say, the shock absorbers
tendency to rapidly extend again immediately after
absorbing the landing impact.
The shock absorber consists primarily of two
cylinders which slide one inside the other much like a
telescope. To prevent one cylinder rotating inside the
other, torque links or toggles are used.
Oleo struts
Shimmy damper
• Asymmetric blade effect.
• Gyroscopic effect.
• Slipstream effect.
• Torque reaction.
• Crosswind (weathercock) effect.
Asymmetric blade effect.
Types of ice removal
• Fluid
• Mechanical
• Thermal
• Electrical
The areas sensitive to ice accumulation
• Aerofoils.
• Propellers.
• Engine intakes.
• Windscreens.
• Pitot and static heads
Types of ice removal
Pneumatic boots
Thermal heating (leading edge)
Instruments
Instrument Overview
It is important to understand which instruments are going to be discussed and where they obtain
their information from. We are going to look at the following instruments
Pitot – Static Instruments.
Gyroscopic Instruments.
Instrument Overview
It is important to understand which instruments are going to be discussed and
where they obtain their information from. We are going to look at Pitot – Static
Instruments and Gyroscopic Instruments in this syllabus.
Pitot – Static Instruments :
Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) : supplied by Pitot and Static.
Altimeter : supplied by Static only.
Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI ) : supplied by Static only.
Pitot Static Instruments
Pitot Static Instruments
ASI VSI ALT
Pitot Heat
Static Port
Pitot Tube
Instrument Overview
It is important to understand which instruments are going to be discussed and where they
obtain their information from. We are going to look at Pitot – Static Instruments and
Gyroscopic Instruments in this syllabus.
Pitot – Static Instruments :
Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) : supplied by Pitot and Static.
Altimeter : supplied by Static only.
Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI ) : supplied by Static only.
Gyroscopic Instruments :
Artificial Horizon ( AH ) : supplied by the Vacuum pump only.
Directional Gyro Indicator ( DGI ) : supplied by the Vacuum pump only.
Turn And Slip Indicator : supplied by the Electrical system for the Turn and Gravity for the
Slip.
Gyroscopic Instruments
Pitot Tube
The basic Pitot probe is mounted where it will not be affected by the disturbed airflow caused by the structure
of the aircraft.
These errors are not completely removed and are called pressure and position errors. These errors are
corrected during the flight testing.
Manoeuvre Induced errors also exist at the Pitot probe and Static ports. These errors are caused when the
aircraft’s angle of attack changes and can last for several seconds.
The Pitot probe measures the air pressure caused by the forward movement of the aircraft also referred to as
total pressure or ram air pressure.
The faster the aircraft is moving the higher the air pressure in the Pitot tube, therefore the pressure inside the
Pitot tube is directly proportional to airspeed.
The Pitot probe is also able to measure static pressure. Both Pitot and Static pressure are used to supply the
Airspeed Indicator or ASI. We can now use the formula :
Pitot Pressure = Dynamic Air Pressure + Static Air Pressure
The Pitot probe is electrically heated to prevent ice accumulation and has drain holes at the bottom of the tube
to prevent water accumulation.
Pitot Tube
Pitot
Pressure
Direction Of Air Flow
Static
Pressure
Static Static
Vent Vent
Pitot Pressure = Dynamic Air Pressure + Static Air Pressure
Pitot Tube
Static Port
Static pressure is the ambient air pressure at a given point in the atmosphere.
A Static port or vent is used to measure the ambient pressure acting on the aircraft.
A Static vent consists of a smooth plate that is flush mounted on either side of the aircraft fuselage.
Two vents are used to equalise any pressures caused by the yaw of the aircraft.
An emergency static vent is normally incorporated in the system and is located inside the flight deck in a non-
pressurised aircraft.
It must be noted that when using this emergency static vent the pressure sensed in the flight deck is normally
lower than ambient static pressure by approximately 10 Mb.
Static Vent
Pitot Static Instruments
Pressure Altimeter Introduction
The Pressure Altimeter is basically an Aneroid Barometer.
An Aneroid Barometer is used to measure the ambient Atmospheric pressure or Static pressure.
This pressure measurement is then used to display aircraft altitude.
The Altimeter is calibrated for ISA conditions.
Pressure Altimeter
The following is a summary of the operation of the Pressure Altimeter
The Pressure Altimeter measures the ambient Atmospheric pressure or Static pressure.
The Static pressure is measured by the Static port or vent and is fed into the airtight case of the instrument.
The Pressure Altimeter has a partially evacuated capsule supported by a leaf spring inside the case.
As the aircraft climbs the Static pressure decreases and the capsule will expand.
This expansion is transmitted through the linkages to indicate an increase in altitude.
As the aircraft descends the Static pressure will increase causing the capsule to contract.
This contraction is transmitted through the linkages to indicate a decrease in altitude.
A Bi- Metallic strip is incorporated into the suitable linkages to compensate for the expansion or contraction of
the linkages with temperature changes.
Pressure Altimeter Construction
Sealed Case
Static Vent
Altimeter Scale
Capsule
Linkages
Static Port Pointer
Baro Correction
Static pressure is measured at the Static port.
As the aircraft climbs the Static pressure decreases and the capsule expands.
This expansion shows an increase in altitude.
As the aircraft descends the Static pressure increases and the capsule will contract.
This contraction shows a decrease in altitude.
The Baro correction is used to compensate for any deviation in ISA conditions.
Altimeter ( ALT ) Errors
Instrument Error :
These errors are caused by imperfections during manufacture and wear and tear of the instrument.
There is another consideration, and that is the rate of pressure change of the atmosphere with an increase in
altitude and is assumed to be constant.
As this assumption is not true the altimeter will be unreliable at higher altitudes.
0 to 5000 Feet equates to approximately 170 Mb.
35000 Feet to 40000 Feet equates to approximately 50 Mb.
60000 Feet to 65000 Feet equates to approximately 15 Mb.
Pressure and Position Error :
This error is caused by incorrect pressures being sensed at the Static vent due to the disturbed airflow over
the airframe.
This error is also caused by the disturbed airflow due to the positioning of the Static vent on the airframe.
These errors are combined and a correction card can be produced.
Manoeuvre Induced Error :
This error is produced by the changes in aircraft attitude and configuration or when the Static vent is not
aligned with the airflow i.e. a side slip or crabbed flight in crosswind.
Altimeter ( ALT ) Errors
Time Lag Error :
It may take time for pressure changes at the Static vent to register on the altimeter.
This is mainly due to the mechanical properties of the instrument.
During a rapid climb the Altimeter lags and therefore under reads.
During a rapid descent the Altimeter lags and therefore over reads.
Barometric Error :
The Altimeter is calibrated according to ISA conditions for atmospheric pressure.
If there is a deviation from the ISA pressure conditions an error will occur in the Altimeter indications.
The pressure error can be corrected for by means of the barometric correction scale.
Temperature Error :
The Altimeter is calibrated according to ISA conditions for atmospheric temperature.
If there is a deviation from the ISA temperature conditions an error will occur in the Altimeter.
The error is small at lower altitudes but significant at higher altitudes.
This error can be corrected by the altitude window on a navigation computer.
Altitude and Pressure Relationship
As the aircraft flies from a high pressure area to a low pressure area the atmosphere becomes less dense.
The Altimeter capsules sense this drop in pressure.
As the pressure drops the Altimeter capsules start to expand.
The expansion of the capsules is indicated as an increase in altitude.
The pilot tries to maintain his assigned altitude and thus starts to descend the aircraft.
The aircraft is thus moving closer to the ground for a constant assigned or maintained altitude.
The altimeter over reads.
Altitude and Pressure Relationship
The aircraft flies from a high temperature area to a low temperature area at a constant Pressure.
One must remember the QNH setting on the altimeter is a function of pressure at the aircraft reduced to
sea level by means of a formula 1 Mb per 30 Feet assuming ISA pressure gradient.
In warm air, because of its lower density, the aircraft will have to be higher to obtain the same pressure
difference in Mb from sea level. The altimeter under reads.
In cold air, because of its high density the displacement of the aircraft for the same Mb change will be less
and the aircraft will be lower to the ground. The altimeter is over reading.
Altitude Definitions
QNE:
This is the barometric pressure at the ISA reference point of 1013.25 Mb.
When the QNE is set in the altimeter subscale the altimeter will read the following:
Flight Level i.e. FL 090.
Pressure Altitude i.e. 9000 Feet.
When QNE is set the altimeter reads altitude above the ISA reference level.
Airfield Pressure
860 Mb
Airfield Elevation
5010 Feet
ISA Reference
1013.25 Mb
QNH is 1027 Mb
Mean Sea Level
Altimeter Calculation No 3
An aircraft leaves airfield Y, airfield pressure 960 Mb, and the altimeter reads airfield elevation of 1860
Feet. The aircraft lands at airfield Z, elevation 1000 Feet, where the altimeter reads 1270 Feet. What is
the QNH at Z?
Altitude Difference 270 Feet
270 Feet Difference 9 Mb Pressure Difference
To make the Altimeter read correctly 1022 Mb - 9 Mb
QNH at airfeild Z 1013 Mb QNH
QNH 1022 Mb
1022 Mb 1270 Feet
Y
Z
1860 Feet
1000 Feet
QFE 960 Mb 62 Mb
Change
QNH 1013 Mb
QNH 1022 Mb
Sea Level
Pitot Static Instruments
Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) Construction
Sealed Case
Capsule
Pitot Tube
Static Vent
Linkages
Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) Construction
Sealed Case
Static Vent Capsule Static pressure
Pitot Tube Dynamic Linkages Pointer
+
Static
Low 0 High
Airspeed Indicator
Pitot = Dynamic + Static
Dynamic is directly proportional to airspeed
Airspeed Indicator ( ASI ) Colour Coding
Vso
Vne Stall speed in the
Velocity never landing config
exceeded
Vs1
Yellow Arc Stall speed
Cautionary speed clean
band. In still air
only
White Arc
Vno Flap operating
Maximum normal band
operating speed
Vfe
Green Arc Maximum
Normal operating flap extended
speed band speed
Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI )
The following is a summary of the operation of the Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI )
The Vertical Speed Indicator uses the principal of pressure differential to measure and indicate a rate of climb or
descent.
A capsule in an airtight case is supplied with Static pressure from the Static vent.
As the aircraft climb or descends the changing Static pressure is fed directly into the capsule.
The Static pressure from the Static vent is also fed into the airtight case through a metering unit or a choke.
The Static pressure is delayed by the choke and thus arrives in the case a few seconds later than the capsule.
This delay in Static pressure causes a difference in pressure between the capsule and the case.
This differential pressure causes the capsule to expand or contract depending on whether the aircraft is climbing
or descending.
This expansion is transmitted through linkages to the indicator.
The indicator will show a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute.
In straight and level flight there is no differential and thus a zero indication.
Pitot Static Instruments
Vertical Speed ( VSI ) Construction
Sealed Case
Capsule
Choke
Static Vent
Linkages
Vertical Speed Indicator ( VSI )
VSI
Pointer
Logarithmic
Scale
VSI
Adjustment
Gyroscopic Instruments
Gyroscopic Instruments :
Artificial Horizon ( AH ) : supplied by the vacuum pump only.
Directional Gyro Indicator ( DGI ) : supplied by the vacuum pump only.
Turn And Slip Indicator : supplied by the electrical system for the turn and gravity for the slip.
Gyroscopic Instruments
Gyroscopic Instruments
AH
Engine Driven
Vacuum Pump
DGI
Air Filter
Vacuum Gauge
Gyroscopic Instruments
Artificial Horizon ( AH )
Roll Scale
Angle of Bank
Indicator
Aircraft Symbol
Horizon
Pitch Scale
Pitch Correction
Artificial Horizon Pitch Indication
Fixed Point
In Space
As the aircraft starts to pitch down the case, outer Gimbal and instrument panel pitch
down.
The vertical axis Gyroscope maintains its rigid position in space.
This rigidity causes a movement between the inner and outer Gimbal.
This movement causes the horizon bar to move and the sky plate to move.
Artificial Horizon Roll Indication
Fixed Point
In Space
As the aircraft starts to roll the vertical axis Gyroscope maintains its rigidity in space.
The aircraft, the aircraft symbol and the roll index move around the vertical axis Gyroscope.
The movement between the aircraft and the Gimbal assembly indicates roll information to the pilot.
Gyroscopic Instruments
Directional Gyroscope ( DGI )
Sealed Case
Air Driven
Horizontal Axis
Rotor
Inner Gimbal
Outer Gimbal
Gimbal Assembly
Able to Rotate on
Bearing Pivot
Gear Train
Direction Card
Gyroscopic Instruments
Turn And Slip Indicator
Rate One Turn
Reference Markers
Rate Of Turn
Pointer
Rate Gyroscope
Electrical Failure Flag
Calibrated For 360° Turn
In 2 Minutes
Slip Indicator
Turn And Slip Indicator
Force of Gravity
Turn And Slip Indicator
Balanced Turn
Centrifugal
Force
Resultant Force
Force of Gravity
Turn And Slip Indicator
Slip – Excessive
Bank
Centrifugal
Force
Resultant Force
Force of Gravity
Turn And Slip Indicator
Skid – Insufficient
Bank
Centrifugal
Force
Resultant Force
Force of Gravity