Enhancing Qualitative

Research Studies
Dr. Resty L. Picardo
CONTENT
01 General Sampling
Principles S
02 Data Saturation

03 Research
Rigors in Qualitative

04 Bracketting
Reflexivity and

05 information
Coding and Theming
01
General
Sampling
Principles
Sampling in Qualitative
Research
Sampling is a crucial aspect of qualitative research as it determines the
representativeness and credibility of the data collected. Several sampling techniques
are used in qualitative research, each with strengths and weaknesses.

Purposive Sampling aka Judgmental sampling

Researchers intentionally select participants with specific characteristics or unique
experiences related to the research question. The goal is to identify and recruit
participants who can provide rich and diverse data to enhance the research
findings. It is used when researchers seek to identify individuals or groups with
particular knowledge, skills, or experiences relevant to the research question.

In a study examining the experiences of cancer patients undergoing

chemotherapy, purposive sampling may be used to recruit participants
who have undergone chemotherapy in the past year. Researchers can
better understand the phenomenon under investigation by selecting
individuals with relevant backgrounds.
• is advantageous when studying groups • The researcher’s judgment may influence the
with technical characteristics or selection of participants, resulting in a biased
experiences where a random selection of sample that does not accurately represent the
participants may yield different results. broader population.

• is the ability to improve the quality and • May not be representative of the more general
accuracy of data collected by selecting population, which limits the generalizability of
participants most relevant to the research the findings.
question which enables researchers to
collect data from diverse participants with
unique perspectives and experiences
related to the research question.
Sampling in Qualitative
Convenience
Research Sampling
Offers several advantages to researchers, including its ease of implementation and
cost-effectiveness. This technique allows researchers to quickly and efficiently recruit
participants without spending time and resources identifying and contacting potential
participants. Furthermore, convenience sampling can result in a diverse pool of
participants, as individuals from various backgrounds and experiences may be more
likely to participate.
While it has the advantage of being efficient, researchers need to acknowledge its
limitations. One of the primary drawbacks of convenience sampling is that it is
susceptible to selection bias. Participants who are more easily accessible may not be
representative of the broader population, which can limit the generalizability of the
findings. Furthermore, convenience sampling may lead to issues with the reliability of
the results, as it may not be possible to replicate the study using the same sample or a
similar one.
To mitigate these limitations, researchers should carefully define the population of
interest and ensure the sample is drawn from that population. For instance, if a study
is investigating the experiences of individuals with a particular medical condition,
researchers can recruit participants from specialized clinics or support groups for that
condition. Researchers can also use statistical techniques such as stratified sampling
• Ease in implementation and cost-effective. • It is susceptible to selection bias. Participants
who are more easily accessible may not be
• Allows researchers to quickly and representative of the broader population,
efficiently recruit participants without which can limit the generalizability of the
spending time and resources identifying findings.
and contacting potential participants.
• May lead to issues with the reliability of the
• Can result in a diverse pool of participants, results, as it may not be possible to replicate
as individuals from various backgrounds the study using the same sample or a similar
and experiences may be more likely to one.
participate.
Sampling in Qualitative
Research
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling, also called referral sampling, is a unique approach researchers
use to recruit participants in qualitative research. The technique involves identifying
a few initial participants who meet the eligibility criteria and asking them to refer
others they know who also fit the requirements. The sample size grows as referrals
are added, creating a chain-like structure. Snowball sampling enables researchers
to reach out to individuals who may be hard to locate through traditional sampling
methods, such as members of marginalized or hidden communities.

In a study examining the experiences of undocumented immigrants,

snowball sampling may be used to identify and recruit participants
through referrals from other undocumented immigrants.
• Can produce in-depth and detailed data from participants with
common characteristics or experiences. Since referrals are made
within a network of individuals who share similarities, researchers
can gain deep insights into a specific group’s attitudes,
behaviors, and perspectives.
Sampling in Qualitative
Research
Theoretical Sampling
is a sophisticated and strategic technique that can help researchers develop more
in-depth and nuanced theories from their data. Instead of selecting participants
based on convenience or accessibility, researchers using theoretical sampling
choose participants based on their potential to contribute to the emerging themes
and concepts in the data. This approach allows researchers to refine their research
question and theory based on the data they collect rather than forcing their data to
fit a preconceived idea. Theoretical sampling is used when researchers conduct
grounded theory research and have developed an initial theory or conceptual
framework.

In a study examining cancer survivors’ experiences, for example,

theoretical sampling may be used to identify and recruit participants
who can provide new insights into the coping strategies of survivors.
• It allows researchers to refine their • Participants are selected based on their
research question and theory based on perceived ability to offer new perspectives on
emerging data. This means the research the research question. This means specific
can be highly targeted and focused, perspectives or experiences may be
leading to a deeper understanding of the overrepresented in the sample, leading to an
phenomenon being studied. incomplete understanding of the phenomenon
being studied.
• Can generate rich and in-depth data, as
participants are selected based on their • Can be time-consuming and resource-
potential to provide new insights into the intensive, as researchers must continuously
research question. analyze the data and recruit new participants.
Sampling in Qualitative
Factors to Consider When Choosing a Sampling
Research
the choice of sampling technique can impact the generalizability of the research
Technique
findings. Therefore, it’s crucial to consider the potential impact on the bias, sample
diversity, and generalizability when choosing a sampling technique. By doing so,
researchers can select the most appropriate method for their research question and
ensure the validity and reliability of their findings.

Practical Approaches to Sampling: Recommended

Practices
• Consider the Research Question and the Purpose of the Study and Identify the
specific characteristics or criteria they seek in their sample
• Ensure Diversity in Samples

• Maintain Ethical Considerations

02
Data Saturation
 What is Data
It is a point in data collection when new information no longer brings fresh
Saturation
insights to the research questions.

Because qualitative research is about

understanding something deeply, and one can
reach a critical mass when trying to do that.

How to know when data saturation is

reached?
Recurring No new data Consistency
themes
Rich data Full
understanding
How can a qualitative research project reach data
saturation?
Adequate sample size Well-screened
participants
 03
Rigors in
Qualitative
Research
 Criteria for Trustworthiness
Data collected is
accurate/representative of the
phenomenon under study

Corresponds to the notion of validity in quantitative work but is more about

internal validity. The credibility of qualitative data can be assured through
multiple perspectives throughout data collection to ensure data are
appropriate.
This may be done through
• data, investigator, or theoretical triangulation
• participant validation or member checks
• the rigorous techniques used to gather the data.
 Criteria for Trustworthiness

the extent to which the findings

are transferable to other
situations

It is like generalizability in quantitative; however, it is not

generalizability. Transferability addresses the applicability of
the findings to similar contexts or individuals not to broader
contexts. Transferability can be achieved by a “thick
description” of the findings from multiple data collection
methods.
Criteria for Trustworthiness
 Criteria for Trustworthiness
an in-depth description of the
study procedures and analysis
to allow the study to be
replicated

It is like reliability in quantitative studies. Dependability can be

ensured through rigorous data collection techniques and procedures
and analysis that are well documented. Typically, an inquiry audit
using an outside reviewer assures dependability. For students, this
would be your committee.
 Criteria for Trustworthiness
the steps to ensure that the
data and findings are not due to
the participant and/or
researcher bias

It is like objectivity in quantitative studies; however, objectivity is not necessarily critical

for qualitative studies as long as personal biases are unpacked in the write-up.
Unpacking personal bias can be accomplished by a bracketing interview or reflexivity.
Confirmability of qualitative data is assured when data are checked and rechecked
throughout data collection and analysis to ensure findings would likely be repeatable by
others. Confirmability can be documented by a clear coding schema that identifies the
codes and patterns identified in analyses. This technique is called an audit trail. It can
also be ensured through triangulation and member checking of the data as well as
conducting a bracketing interview or practicing reflexivity to confront potential personal
bias.
Criteria for Trustworthiness
Criteria for Trustworthiness
04
Reflexivity and
Bracketting
 05
Coding and
Theming
Information
 Coding and Thematic Analysis
Coding, is a crucial step in ensuring the validity and
reliability of the findings. Coding is the process of
labeling and organizing qualitative data to identify
different themes and the relationships between
them.
Coding qualitative research to find common themes
and concepts is part of thematic analysis. Thematic
analysis extracts themes from text by analyzing the
word and sentence structure.

CODING: Automated coding, manual

coding, and a blend of the two.
Sample Softwares for Thematic Analysis
Sample
Sample
Sample
THANKS