Unit one: The sentence

1.1. What is a sentence?

A sentence is a grammatically independent unit of
thought made up of a word or group of words
which are related to convey a complete thought
Examples:
 The boy threw the ball.
 The boy threw the ball, and his friend caught it.
 The boy who was wearing a green shirt threw the ball.
1.2. What are parts of a sentence?
The main parts or ingredients or constituent elements of a
sentence are subject and predicate.
 Con…

• Subject is a part of a sentence about which the

sentence is made, or that which does the action.
• It is a noun or pronoun with any of its modifiers.
• Predicate is a part of the sentence which says
something about the subject.
• It is a verb or verb phrase with any modifiers or
words used to complete its meaning.
• It is a part of the sentence excluding subject:
• It is a word or combination of words, including
the verb, objects, or phrases governed by the verb.
 Con…

• Examples:
Our soccer team won the state
championship
Subject predicate
A subject or predicate can be simple,
complete, or compound.
I. Simple subject and simple predicate
Examples:
Simple subject (actor) Simple predicate (act)
Flowers Bloom.
Men Laugh
Candles Burn.
 II. Complete subject and Complete predicate

 When a simple subject is expanded by the addition of

modifying words, the expanded subject is called a
complete subject.
Examples:
 Flowers are blooming. (Simple subject)
 The small flowers are blooming. (Complete subject)
 The small red petaled flowers are blooming.
(Complete subject
• In the same way, when the predicate consists
of a single verb or verb phrase, it is called a
simple predicate.
 Con…

• When it is expanded by the addition of other

words, then the simple predicate plus its
modifiers, plus any other words that complete
its meaning, are called complete predicate.
Examples:
Solomon is walking. (Simple predicate)
Solomon is walking quickly to school.
(Complete predicate)
Solomon is walking quickly to school in the
morning. (Complete predicate)
 III. Compound subject and compound predicate

• A subject can be made up of two or more

nouns or pronouns. In this case, the sentence
has a compound subject.
Example:
A right attitude and a winning personality
should be your best principles to get a job.
• A sentence can also have two or more verbs
for the same subject. In this case, the sentence
is said to have a compound predicate.
 Con…

Example:
• The snow fell throughout the night and
blanketed the area.
• You should move at six o’clock and arrive
by midnight.
Activity-1: In each of the following
sentences, identify grammatically complete
sentence and then underline the subject
ones and the predicate twice.
 Con…
1. The fast advancement of science and technology.
2. Yesterday, we went to Merkato.
3. The expansion of desertification in the world.
4. Malaria and TB have become major killer diseases.
5. His parents live in the country side.
6. The importance of national police in the development of a
country.
Activity- 2: 1. Write two sentences with simple subject and
simple predicate.
2. Write two sentences with complete subject and complete
predicate.
3. Write two sentences with compound subject and
compound predicate.
 1.3. Types of sentences

• In terms of their structure or construction, sentences

are commonly categorized into four–
simple, compound, complex, and compound
complex.
A/ Simple sentence is a sentence consisting of a
subject and a predicate, either or both of which
may be compound. In other words, a simple sentence
contains one main clause.
Examples:
The players arrived.
The players and the judges arrived.
The players and the judges arrived and reported.
I have never played tennis.
 B/ Compound sentence

• It is a sentence which consists of two or more

independent clauses connected by a
coordinating conjunction, conjunctive adverbs,
or separated by a semi-colon.
Examples:
I have played tennis, but I hope to start taking
lessons next year.
Run away; otherwise, they will kill you.
I ate everything on the tray; I was really
hungry.
 C/ complex sentence

• It is a sentence which consists of one main

clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
Examples:
He met a student who left school last year.
After I took a nap, I felt better.
If you come late, you will miss the bus.
The girl whom I told you about yesterday
when we were at the café is a lawyer.
D/ compound-complex sentence is a sentence
which consists of two independent clauses
with one or more subordinate clauses.
Examples:
• The boy who caught the ball threw it to first base, but he didn’t
throw it fast enough.
• I bought coca cola, and I drink it at once because I was very thirsty.
Activity-3: Read the following sentences and identify whether
each of them is simple, compound, complex, or compound
complex.
1. Bekele dislikes sitting on the beach; he always gets a
nasty sun burn.
2. Although they are 250 miles apart, they keep in constant
contact on the internet.
3. Those students who live in the area often find local
college boring, but students from out of the area seem to like
it.
 Con...

4. After a lengthy and noisy debate, they

established the rules and regulations of the school.
5. Ronaldiniho dribbled past two defenders and
made a good shot, but the goal keeper easily saved.
6. A gentle man of wealth and position has been
found guilty of theft.
7. Those who seek faultless friends remain
friendless.
8. Some people of Debre Markos town are
throwing garbage anywhere in the town;
consequently, the environment is polluted.
• In terms of their function, sentences are
commonly categorized into four- Declarative,
Imperative, Interrogative and Exclamatory
A/ Declarative sentence is a sentence which
states facts and ends with flu stop.
• It gives information about something.
Example:
• Ayele is a cleaver student.
• All students in this class need to get good
results at this course.
 B/Imperative sentence
• It is a sentence which is used: to give commands,
for invitation, to give offers, etc
Example:
• open the door.
• Please come and visit me at the afternoon.
• I shall help you at your bag.
C/ Interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks
somebody questions about something and ends with
question mark.
• It seeks information from somebody about something
 Con…

Example:
• Do you have a good friend?
• Are you a 2nd year Management dep.t student?
• You are a student. Aren’t you?
• Can you show me how can I get the
president’s office?
D/Exclamatory sentence is a sentence that exclaims
either happiness or sadness feelings and ends with
exclamation mark.
• Wow she is coming here!
 Con…
• Hurrah! We won the race.
• Alas! My friend died.
1.4. Sentence Combination
Sentence combination is needed since short pattern sentences bore both the writer
and the reader for two reasons.

1. Repetition of a single, simple sentence pattern draws attention to itself, not to

the ideas in the paper.

2. Simple, short sentences cannot show the reader the many relationships that
exist among ideas of different importance.
Look at the following examples:
A/ joining sentences by omitting a repeated subject.

Original: Radio advertisements are broadcast daily or weekly. Radio

advertisements reach a
wide audience.
 Con…
• Revised: Radio advertisements are broadcast daily or
weekly and reach a wide audience.
B/ joining sentences by omitting repeated nouns and by
using adjectives.
Original: The city council conducted a study of public
transportation. The study was lengthy.
The study was detailed.
Revisied: the city council conducted a lengthy, detailed
study of public transportation.
C/ joining sentences by omitting repeated subjects and
repeated verbs by using adverbs.
Original: The negotiators worked to gain approval for the
contact. The negotiators worked at a
steady pace. However, they worked slowly.
 Con…

• Revised: The negotiators worked steadily but

slowly to gain approval for the contact.
• Generally, there are two ways of sentence
combination.
1.4.1. Coordination
Coordination is a method of joining two
independent sentences by using coordinators.
• In coordination, the status of the sentences is not
reduced when they are combined.
• In other words, when they are combined, they still
remain independent clauses. The coordinators we
use in coordination are:
 Con…

A. Coordinating conjunctions,
B. Correlative conjunctions and
C. Adverb conjunctions.

A. Coordinating conjunctions
Activity-4: Examine the sentences, especially the underlined parts,
and then answer the questions below. What patterns can you
discover?
 Almaz earned an „A‟ in the course, for she studied carefully.
 We went to the movies, and we drank coffee.
 He did not study for the exam, nor did he help his parents.
 Buying this T-shirt is my choice, but it can be expensive.
 Alemu wanted to go swimming, or he wanted to go playing football.
 He knew the cost, yet he did it anyway.
 He knew it did not cost him, so he did it.
 CON..
1. What is the function of the underlined part?
2. Where is the underlined portion located?
3. How is the underlined portion punctuated?
4. What is the apparent meaning of each underlined
word?
For- shows logical consequence; it has the same
meaning as because, the reason why.
And- shows equality between two ideas. It shows
addition; it has the same meaning as in
addition, along with.
Nor- shows equality of two negative ideas. It shows an
addition of a negative point.
 CON…

But- shows opposition or contrast between two ideas. It

has the same meaning as however,
except, on the other hand.
Or- shows alternative or choice
Yet- shows opposition; also shows emphasis (a strong
but)
So -shows cause and effect relationship. It has the same
meaning as therefore, as a result.
Activity- 5: Write an appropriate coordinating
conjunction in the space provided.
1. You read a news paper every day, _____________you
do not know what is going on in the
world.
 CON…

• Members of the churches met for dinner,

____________ they held an inter faith service.
3. The runner admitted taking steroids,
____________ he was forced to give up his
medals.
4. Employers do not want the theft, ____________
do they want the expense and had publicity of
having an employee arrested.
5. You should return the paper on time,
___________ you will lose grade for lateness.
 Con…

Activity- 6: Combine the following pairs of

sentences by using coordinating conjunctions.
1. A. The dog ate the food very fast.
B. It was very hungry.
2. A. The boy sang very well at the Ethiopian idols.
B. The Judge didn‟t allow him to pass the next
stage.
3. A. She didn‟t bring her exercise book.
B. She didn‟t bring her pen.
4. A. The farmer worked all day and night.
B. He harvested a lot of crops.
 B. Correlative conjunctions

• Correlative conjunctions are coordinating words that work

in pairs to join words, phrases, and clauses. Below are five
pairs of correlative conjunctions commonly used in English:

Correlative
Meaning Example
conjunction

Both Tariku and his son

Both …… and Both
are artists.
“To accomplish great
things, we must not only
Not only …….
Both act but
But also
also dream; not only
plan, but also believe.”
 Con…

One of the Either you or Susan

Either …or
two must stay with me.

He helps neither his

None of the
Neither .. nor parents nor his
two
brothers.

Yohanse is trying to
decide whether to go
Dilemma
Whether…or to medical
/confusion/
school or to go to law
school.
 Con…
• Correlative conjunctions always join grammatically equal
elements in a language (e.g. noun & noun, phrase & phrase,
clause & clause, verbs & verbs etc.)
Example:
1. Both my sister and my brother work with computers.
(The Correlative conjunction joins the noun.)
2. Put your gold either in a bank or in a treasury account.
(The Correlative conjunction joins the prepositional phrases)
3. Either help us in our struggle for equality or step aside and let us
pass.
( The Correlative conjunction joins two independent clauses.)
4. Betelhem became angry both with our singing and with our
shouting.
( This Correlative conjunction links two prepositional phrases.)
5. She wanted neither cake nor ice cream.
( The Correlative conjunction links two nouns.)
 Con…

6. The teachers are not only intelligent but also

friend.
(This is not correct because intelligent is an
adjective and friend is a noun.)
7. The athletes did not know whether to run or
walking in order to warm up.
(This is not correct because to run is the
infinitive form, and walking is the present
participle
form.)
 Con…

Activity-7: In the space provided, write an

appropriate correlative conjunction.
1. ______________bananas _______________ oranges
are cheap in this town; both are expensive.
2. I am _____________ proud to be here
_____________ happy to meet you. It is good
opportunity to me.
3. ____go to bed early this evening ___stop
complaining about being tired in class.
4. When they found the man who had been lost for four
days, he was ___________ tired
_____________ hungry
6. They wouldn‟t accept our demands;
___________, we must fight them.
7. We entirely agree with you on this issue.
There is one small objection, ___________.
8. We were getting late; ___________, we
decided to take a taxi.
• Combine the following pairs of sentences by using
the appropriate conjunctive
adverb.
1. He won the lottery. His father gave him a lot of
money.
2. He worked hard. He became rich.
3. Abebe‟s parents are wealthy. They are not happy.
4. Bahir Dar is growing fast. Debre Markos is growing
slowly.
5. He works in the supermarket. He learns in the
evening.
6. They work in the same Department. They do not talk
to each other
• Activity-11 : In the space provided, use appropriate
subordinating conjunction
As, until, although, because, after, if, whenever, as
soon as, where
1. ______________ It was easy for me, I help Aster
write the letter.
2. Please come to my home ___________ you can.
3. ______________had hurt my legs, I did not stop
playing.
4. ___________ he ate his lunch, he went out for work.
5. He cannot study his lesson ___________ he is busy
helping his parents.
6. ___________he is thin, he won the race easily.
• Join the following sentences using the most
appropriate
subordinating conjunction
1. Meron reaches home quickly. She will tell
her father about the accident.
2. He works hard. He doesn‟t succeed.
3. The day was very cold. They continued their
work.
4. She is a decent girl. Everyone likes to marry
her.
5. He is poor. He is honest
B. Relative pronoun
• Relative pronouns are also used to join subordinate
/dependent/ clauses with the independent sentences.
•They also introduce relative clauses.
Examples:
1. The boat that was owned by Mr. Mitchell sank in
the seaport.
2. This is the purse that I found on the road.
3. The book which I bought yesterday cost me 4.50
Birr.
4. The girl whose pen you borrowed, has come to ask
for it.
 Con…

5. The clerk who took my order made a mistake in

the bill.
6. Samrawit, whom you met yesterday, is my aunt.
7. The thief that the police were looking for has
been caught.
• Note: the bold parts are subordinate clauses.
•In relative clauses, the adjective clauses which are
dependent clauses that modify a noun or a pronoun
in the main clause, usually begin with relative
pronoun: who, whom, whose, which, or that.
 Con…

Who, whose, and whom are used to refer only

to people.
Which is used to refer only to things and
animals.
That is used to refer to anything-people,
things, or animals.
The relative pronoun “that” can be used in
place of who, which, or whom, but not in
place of whose.
 Con…
- Adjective clauses are always placed after the noun
or the pronoun they modify.
- The relative pronoun that introduces an adjective
clause can function as a subject, as an object, or as
a possessive marker.
•Relative clauses: Restrictive and non restrictive
 A restrictive adjective clause is necessary to make
the meaning of the sentence complete.
Example:1. The film that I saw yesterday won a
Grammy Award.
 Con…
2. The girl whom you wanted to marry has married
someone else.
If you leave out the restrictive or defining clause “whom
you wanted to marry” the meaning is not clear.
• The girl ____ which girl? The relative clause answers
this question.
 A non restrictive adjective clause provides additional
information to a sentence and if left out it does not
affect the essential meaning of the sentence.
 Con…
•`Example: 1. New York, which is America’s populous
city, is one of the world’s leading commercial, finical,
and cultural centers.
2. Shakespeare, who had a bald head, was a great poet
and dramatist.
3. My sister Sindu, whom you met last week, wants to
speak to you.
• Note: you can see in this example the noun ‘New
York’, ‘Shakespeare’, ‘My sister ‘Sindu” are defined
by themselves.
• So, the relative clauses do not define them.
 Con…
•A non-defining or non-restrictive relative clause is
always marked off from the rest of the sentence by
commas before and after it.
Activity-13: Join the following sentences using the
most appropriate relative pronoun.
Who, whom, which, whose,
1. The women had been arrested. Her child was
accused of theft.
2. The medicine is very expensive. Helen needs the
medicine.
 Con…
3. Rahel went abroad. Daniel wanted to marry
Rahel.
4. The man called a police. His car was stolen.
5. Roberto is sure to win an art scholarship.
Roberto is talented portrait artist.
6. Professor Wong came in 1960 to study
chemistry at Yale University. He was born in San
Francisco’s Chinatown in 1943.
 Con…
Activity- 14: Complete the following sentences with
the correct relative pronoun, Who, whom, which,
whose.
1. This is the bank ___________ was robbed yesterday.
2. A boy ___________ sister is in my class was in the
bank at that time.
3. The man ___________ robbed the bank had two
pistols.
4. He wore a mask ___________made him look like
Mouse.
 Con…
5. The people ___________ were in the bank
were very frightened.
6. A police officer __________ car was parked at
the next corner stopped and arrested them.
1.5. Characteristics of Effective sentences
• An effective sentence is like a skilled athlete
moving towards a goal.
• Effective sentences have a quality that enables
them convey an idea with clarity and style.
 Con…
•Effective sentences have certain qualities such as
clarity, economy and emphasis which help to
convince and please the reader.
[Link]: The first requirement of a good
sentence is clarity.
Most of failures in clarity result from three sources:
I) from errors such as: faulty/ ambiguous pronoun
reference, dangling modifier, misplaced modifiers,
inadequate punctuation/ run-on, comma splice,
fragment/, faulty parallelism, etc.
 Con…
II) From vague diction: one of the errors
• which affect the clarity of a sentence is vague
diction.
• Vagueness is one of the major weaknesses in diction.
• Words are vague when, in context, they do not
convey to a reader one specific meaning. Thus,
during diction (choice of word), know your
audience, don’t use jargons in ordinary writing and
use common word which give one clear
interpretation for all people.
 Con…
III) From over involved sentence structure: the other
failure in clarity comes from over involved sentence
structure.
• Last month while I was visiting the federal buildings in
Washington on a guided tour, we went to the National Art
Gallery, where we had been for an hour when the rest of
the group was ready to move on to the Treasury Building
and I told a friend with the group that I wanted to stay in
the Art Gallery a while longer and I would rejoin the
group about half an hour later, but I never did, even
though I moved more quickly than I wanted to from room
to room, not having seen after about four hours all that
there was to see.
 Con…
•The following version reduces the original
eleven clauses to four and condenses the 106
words to 31 words in two sentences.
• While visiting the National Art Gallery with a
tour group last month, I stayed for four hours
after the group left. Even then I did not see all
I wanted too.
B. Economy
[Link] other requirement to achieve an effective
sentence is economy.
• Economy is a relation between the number of
words used and the amount of meaning they
convey
Wordy: I should like to made entirely clear to one
and all that neither I nor any of my associates or
fellow-workers had anything at all to do in any way,
shape, or form with this illicit and legally
unjustifiable act that has been committed.
 Con…
•Improved: I want to make it clear to everyone that
neither I nor any of my associates had anything to do
with this illegal act.
• The common methods to achieve economy are:
•
I. Cutting out unnecessary words within a sentence:
• Wordy: As we walked in the direction of home, I
felt as if I had never been happier.

• Improved: As we walked home, I felt I had never

been happier.
 Cont’d

• Wordy: The truth of the matter is, to call a

spade a spade, that he is afraid of her.
• Improved: The truth is that he is afraid of her.
II. Substituting more economical expressions for wordy
ones:
A good style involves avoiding unnecessarily
long words when simple words can give
equally clear meaning.
Wordy: We find the situation that exists at the
moment intolerable.
Improved: We find the present situation
intolerable.
 Cont’d
• Wordy: I think the time has come for us to be
leave.
Improved: It is time to leave.
III. Avoiding Redundancy
Example:
Wordy : We planned to go at 3 O‟clock p.m in the
afternoon.
Improved: We planned to go at 3 p.m

Wordy: In their opinion they think they are right.

Improved: They think they are right.
 C. EMPHASIS
• It is a reflection of purposes. Emphasis
can be made by the following ways:
I. Emphatic word order: the way word
order is used to obtain emphasis in a
sentence depend on two considerations:
A. What words do the writer wish to
emphasize?
B. What positions within a sentence
provide the most emphasis?
 Cont’d

• In English sentence, both the beginning and the

end are emphatic positions.
Eg. On July 31, 1973, a plane crash which killed
eighty-eight people and which was the first fatal
crash for Delta Airlines in 95 million passenger
miles occurred at Boston’s Logan International
Airport.
II. Emphatic Repetition:
• Key words and ideas can be repeated for
emphasis for the fact that intentional repetition
can produce a desired emphasis.
 Cont’d
• But careless and awkward repetition of words
make sentences weak and flabby.
Eg. A moderately honest man with a moderately
faithful wife, moderate drinkers both, in a
moderately healthy home: that is the true middle
class unit.
III. Emphatic Voice: Verbs in the active voice
create more emphasis than verbs in the passive.
Eg. The cat killed the rat. /Active/
The rat was killed by the cat /passive/
 Basic Sentence Faults
•The purpose of writing is to communicate facts,
feelings, attitudes, and ideas clearly and
effectively.
•But in order to make your sentences more
effective expressions of ideas, you have to clear
your sentences from the following types of faulty
constructions.
• 1. Sentence Fragments
• Every sentence must have a subject and a verb and must
express a complete thought.
 Cont’d
•A word group that lacks a subject or a verb and
does not express a complete thought is a
fragment.
•i.e. when a dependent (subordinate) clause or a
phrase is presented as a sentence, it is called a
fragment. Fragments commonly occur:
A. Part of the sentence, usually the subject or
verb, is missing
 Con‘t’d
• Incorrect: Robel going to the store.
• Correct: Robel is going to the store.
• Incorrect: gone before they came.
• Correct: Robel had gone before they came.
B. A dependent clause is used alone, without being
attached to a related independent clause.
Example:
•Incorrect: Because he was happy
•Correct: Henock laughed out loud because he was
happy.
 Cont’d
•Incorrect: Even though the pizza was hot. He ate it
quickly.
•Correct: Even though the pizza was hot, he ate it quickly
C. Fragments commonly occur with prepositional
phrases:
Eg. Incorrect: It came as a great relief. To everyone.
•Correct: It came as a great relief to everyone.
• Incorrect: By three o’clock the next day. The
supervisor wanted our reports.
• Correct: The supervisor wanted our reports by three
o’clock the next day.
 Cont’d
D. Fragments commonly occur with verbal phrases:
• Incorrect: I plan on working overtime. To get this job
finished.
• Correct: I plan on working overtime to get this job
finished.
•Incorrect: Women need to have an average of two
children. To keep the world’s population constant in the
long run.
•Correct: Women need to have an average of two
children to keep the world’s population constant in the
long run.
 Activity- 15
•Determine which of the following word groups are sentence
fragments, and which are complete sentences.

1. The president’s proposal to raise income taxes.

2. A disease that strikes people of all ages.
3. The boy you love is dangerous.
4. An article about the dangers of exercising sex
at university.
5. whoever watches six hours of television a day
is likely to suffer from eye strain.
II. Comma splice

•It occurs when two independent clauses are separated by only a

comma.
•i.e. the use of a comma between two main clauses without a
coordinating conjunction results in the comma fault or comma
slice.
1. Incorrect: Yohannes shouted at the man, the man called the
police.
•Correct: Yohannes shouted at the man. The man called the
police.
•Correct: Yohannes shouted at the man; the man called the police.
•Correct: Yohannes shouted at the man, and the man called the
police.
 Cont’d
 Comma splice can be corrected in one of the
following ways.
Connect the main clauses with a
coordinating conjunction and a comma.
Replace the comma with semicolon.
Make a separate sentence of each main
clause.
Change one of the main clauses to a
subordinate clause.
Activity- 16: Revise the following comma
splice faults.
[Link] disliked school; however she studied
every day.
[Link] witness was unwilling to testify, he was
afraid of the accused man.
[Link] I am tired, I will take a nap later.
4.I avoided desserts, I was trying to lose weight.
[Link] seemed quite, then the explosion
came.
III. Run on /fused/ sentences

•This error occurs when two sentences are mixed

in the same sentence.
•They should have been separated by an
appropriate conjunction, semicolon, or a full
stop.
•Fused /error/: Alemu bought the Christmas tree
Almaz put it up and decorated it.
•Correct: Alemu bought the Christmas tree.
Almaz put it up and decorated it.
 Cont’d
•Correct: Alemu bought the Christmas tree;
Almaz put it up and decorated it
•Correct: Alemu bought the Christmas tree, and
Almaz put it up and decorated it.
•Correct: After Alemu bought the Christmas tree,
Almaz put it up and decorated it.
•Activity-17: 3 Revise the following run-on
/fused/ sentences
 Cont’d
[Link] close your eyes I want to surprise
you.
[Link] is a clever student he is not
disciplined.
[Link] didn’t study hard the result was that
many of them failed.
[Link] has been looking for a wife he couldn’t find
one.
[Link] showed me the direction to his house I
couldn’t find it.
II.

IV. Dangling Modifiers

•A dangling modifier is a word, a phrase or a clause that either modifies

nothing in a sentence
•or seems to modify a word which it is not logically related..

[Link]: Driving through the mountains, several beers were

seen.
Revised: Driving through the mountains, we saw several
beers.
• Revised: When we drove through the mountains, we saw
(several beers) were seen.
[Link]: To write effectively, practice is necessary.
• Revised: To write effectively, one must practice.
• Revised: If you wish to write effectively, you must practice.
 cont’d

•These kinds of dangling modifiers can be

revised in two ways:
 By changing the subject of the main clause or
stating an appropriate subject for the main
clause.
 By changing the dangling phrase into a
subordinate clause by adding a subordinating
conjunction.
 Activity- 18
• Revise the following sentences to eliminate the
dangling phrases.
1. To lose weight, fatty foods should be avoided.
2. At the age of four, my parents took me to Addis Ababa.
3. Chopping the onion, the knife cut her finger.
4. Riding my bicycle, a dog chased me.
5. By checking the answer sheet, my errors become clear
to me.
6. Going to Egypt, ancient pyramids were visited.
7. To master dangling modifiers, hard work is required.
8. To examine the brakes, the wheel must be removed.
 V. Misplaced Modifiers
•A misplaced modifier is an adjective or adverb
that is out of position.
•These modifiers may be clauses, phrases, or
single words.
•When they are out of place, the sentence will be
awkward or confusing.
•In most cases, modifiers should be near the
words they modify.
 Cont’d
•Be sure that adverbs such as almost, even, hardly, just,
merely, only, nearly, scarcely, etc refer and logically to
the words they modify.
•Error: Their marriage nearly was broken.
• Revised: Their marriage was nearly broken.
•Error: Abebe performed the role with a dark attitude.
•Revised: Abebe with a dark attitude performed the
role.
•Error: A dog is a good company that is well trained.
•Revised: A dog that is well trained is a good company.
 Activity-19
• The following sentences are unclear; place the
modifying phrases or clauses nearer to the words they
modify.
1. She borrowed an egg from a neighbor that was rotten.
2. He only left ten minutes ago.
3. I almost read half the book.
4. A man drove past in a small ship that was completely bald.
5. The young girl was walking the dog in a short skirt.
6. Mr. Yassir arefat was born in Jerusalem who was the first
president of Palestine.
7. The woman is a medical doctor in a green coat.
8. The lady is my wife with a long hair.
VI. Faulty Agreement

•Agreement is the grammatical relationship

between a subject and a verb, a pronoun and its
antecedent, and number of a subject and a verb.
•The fault occurs when this agreement is not
well maintained.
•Error: Tadelech and her younger sister is
studying computer science.
•Correct: Tadelech and her younger sister are
studying computer science.
 Cont’d
•Error: Seifu, as well as his friends, are listening to local music.
•Correct: Seifu, as well as his friends, is listening to local music
•Either Genet or Aster are handling it.
•Correct: Either Genet or Aster is handling it.
•Error: Either the captain or the soldiers is capable of solving
this crime.
•Correct: Either the captain or the soldiers are capable of
solving this crime.
•Error: Neither John nor Alemu have been invited to dinner.
•Correct: Neither John nor Alemu has been invited to dinner.
 Activity- 20
• The following sentences have errors in agreement. Write the
correct version of each sentence.
1. Ayelech’s roommate, Kebede have won a scholarship.
2. There is only a chair and a table.
3. My family, like many others, are involved in a number of
community activities.
4. Marta, along with the twins, John and Juliyan, were busy.
5. Neither the instructor nor the students has finished their work.
6. Dawit was determined to help his father and brother because he
love him.
7. He asked each of us to bring our own lunch.
8. Nobody eats their dinner.
9. Neither teacher nor the students wants to wear his/her new
uniform.
 VII. Faulty Parallelism
•In English, parallelism means forming
similarity of words expressing equal or parallel
ideas.
•To avoid faulty parallelism and to maintain
clarity, coordinated words, phrases or clauses
must match in grammatical form.
•I.e. noun should be matched with noun, verb
with verb, phrases with phrases, and clauses with
clauses.
•Faulty: He likes to read and playing football.
•Parallel: He likes to read and to play football.
•Faulty: This product is sturdy, light and costs very
little.
•Correct: This product is sturdy, light and inexpensive
(cheap). .
•Faulty: The man gave not only money, but also advised
me.
•Correct: The man gave me not only money but also
advice.
•Faulty: We have stores in Addis, Diredawa, and in
Activity- 21 : Revise the following faulty sentences.

1. He warned me to revise my essay and that I should pay

close attention to parallel structures.
2. I like baking and to eat them.
3. He is either visiting the buildings or work in his office.
4. My job includes checking the inventory and to manage
workers.
5. The students attended classes, did their homework, and
they were going back home.
6. The cyclist owns both a mountain bike and has a racing
bike.
7. The movie not only contained lots of action but also it
offered an important lesson.
VIII. Shift in point of view

 Shifts from Active to Passive: A sentence that starts

out in one voice should usually continue in that
voice.
•Shift: I made the honor role, and my parents were
notified by the school.
•Revised: I made the honor role, and the school
notified my parents.
 Shifts in Tense: A sentence that starts in one tense
should generally continue in that tense
•Shift: I am watching the game, and it was exciting
 Cont’d
•Revised: I am watching the game, and it is exciting.
OR
• I was watching the game, and it was exciting.
•Activity- 22: In the following sentences, correct
the needless shifts in number, person, tense or
voice.
1. After a hot fire was built by the campers, they dried
their wet clothing.
2. I wrote the test in one hour, and it was handed back
to me ten minutes later by the teacher.
3. No matter what political party one
belongs to, you should listen to all
candidates.
4. Just I thought I understood the problem,
the teacher brings up another point.
5. You should install a safety belt in your
car because they help to save lives.
6. Our soccer team is doing better this year
than they did last year.
UNIT TWO: Paragraph Writing

2.1. What is a paragraph?

• A paragraph is a series of sentences all

relating to the same topic or central idea.
• The aim of all paragraphs is to
communicate to the reader that idea
clearly and effectively.
• The length of a paragraph will depend on
the topic and what the writer wants to say.
 Cont’d

•The paragraph should be long enough to

develop the idea expressed in the topic
sentence sufficiently.
•Regardless of the length, the paragraph
must contain only one idea.
•Any irrelevant sentences must be
eliminated from the paragraph to ensure
that it maintains its unity.
2.2. Parts of a paragraph

•A paragraph has three parts : a topic sentence,

supporting sentences, and a conclusion.
2.2.1 Topic Sentence
•The introductory or topic sentence in a paragraph is
an opening and most general sentence.
• It introduces an overall idea that the writer wants to
discuss later in the paragraph.
•It identifies the topic for the reader and states the
main focus or idea of the paragraph and limits the
topic to one.
 cont’d

•The topic sentence should be a complete

sentence, and it contains two elements: the topic
and the controlling idea.
•The topic is the subject, what is being written
about in the paragraph.
•The controlling idea limits the topic of the
paragraph to one definite idea or one aspect of
the topic that represents a particular idea,
feeling, or opinion.
 cont’d

•The controlling idea must not be too broad;

•it must be specific enough for the subject to be
discussed within one paragraph.
• There are three reasons why Canada is
one of the best countries in the world.
First, Canada has an excellent health care
system. All Canadians have access to
medical services at a reasonable price.
Second, Canada has a high standard of
education.
 cont’d

Students are taught by well-trained teachers and

are encouraged to continue studying at
university. Finally, Canada’s cities are clean and
efficiently managed. Canadian cities
have many parks and lots of space for people
to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to
live.
•Topic Sentence: There are three reasons why
Canada is one of the best countries in the world.
 cont’d

•Topic : It is about Canada.

•Controlling idea: the reasons why Canada is
one of the best countries.
•It is possible to have topic sentences with the
same topic but different controlling ideas.
Example:
•The television is a major source of home
entertainment.
•The television is an effective educational tool.
 Activity :1

• Identify the topic and controlling idea of the

following topic sentences.
1. Cooking requires a number of different skills.
Topic: _______________________
Controlling idea: ____________________.
2. Hobbies provide people with many benefits.
Topic: ________________________
Controlling idea: ______________________
3. Learning a foreign language creates job opportunity.
Topic: ______________________
Controlling idea: _________________
 Positions of Topic sentences
• Topic sentences in a paragraph can be given at
the beginning, middle, end and beginning and
end of the paragraph.
Examples:
[Link] were a variety of reasons why people
said they went to football games. Some of the
fans said they went to games because they felt it
would help their team to win the series. Others
considered going to foot ball games more
exciting than watching them on TV.
 cont’d
A few felt that purchasing tickets to football
games would ensure the financial success of the
game and, thus, its continuance. And a very
small number explained that going to football
games was strictly a social occasion.
2. Every thirty-seven seconds, a car is stolen
somewhere in the United States. Although this
statistics is frightening, it is possible for drivers
to prevent car theft if they take a few simple
precautions.
 cont’d

When they leave their cars, they should lock all

valuable in the trunk or glove compartment to
avoid tempting a thief to break in. Parking in the
middle of the block on a busy, well-lighted street
will deter would be thieves. The most obvious
precaution, of course, is always to lock the car
and take the keys- even if the driver is stopping
for just a minute. One out of every five stolen
cars was left unlocked with the keys in the
ignition.
 cont’d

3. When most people hear the word

“abuse”, they think of physical abuse, such
as hitting or kicking someone. However,
there is also sexual abuse, in which the
abuser forces the victim to engage in sexual
acts against his or her will. Emotional
(psychological) abuse is still another form
of abuse. In this form of abuse, there is
continual eroding of the victim’s self-
esteem and mental well-being.
 cont’d

And many people forget that abuse can also be

verbal, in which the abuser uses words to inflict
severe emotional pain and damage. It is
important to recognize that abuse can take
many forms.
[Link] of the most significant factors in selling a
product is how it is packaged. When Stuart Hall
Company, which manufactures notebooks and
paper products for students, realized its sales were
declining because fewer children were being born,
it decided to change its products’ appearance.
 cont’d
So, beginning in 1968, the company replaced its
plain tablets with colored paper and decorated
the covers of its notebooks with the Pink Panther
and other cartoon characters. Students loved the
new designs, and sales soared. Packaging,
therefore, can be a method of solving
marketing problems.
•Activity: 2 In the following paragraphs, the
topic sentences are in different places. Read
each paragraph and decide which sentence is
the topic sentence.
 cont’d

1. Serious depression, as opposed to the fleeting

kind we all feel at times, has several warning
Signs. One symptom of depression is a change in
sleep patterns-either sleeplessness or sleeping too
much. Another sign is abnormal eating patterns; a
person either may begin to eat a great deal or may
almost stop eating. Finally, a general feeling of
hopelessness may signal depression. People feel
indifferent to their families and jobs and may begin
to think that life is not worth living.
 cont’d

2. School officials complain about vandalism

that leaves classroom wrecked and damages
expensive equipment. Teachers complain about
the low salaries they get for their difficult and
important jobs. And parents complain that their
children’s test scores are dropping, that their
children can’t read or do math. The problems
within our school systems are varied and affect
almost everyone involved.
 cont’d

3. Many good students sit near the front of the class, in the
teacher’s line of vision. They find that when they can make
eye contact with the teacher, they’re less likely to let their
attention wander. This and other habits are what help
successful students do well in their classes. Another
common habit of top students is doing some advance
reading of textbook. That gives them a jump on the terms
and concepts that the teacher will be talking about. Also,
good students generally take lots of notes in an orderly
fashion. They realize their notes are more helpful if they’re
written in the same notebook in the same fashion every
day.
 Activity-3
•Write topic sentences for the topics below.
1. Dancing as exercise 2. Games played as a
child 3. Reading for pleasure 4. Favorite pets
2.2.2. Body (Supporting Sentences)
• Supporting sentences develop the topic
sentence.
•These are sentences that talk about or explain
the topic sentences by giving reasons, examples,
facts, statistics and quotations.
 cont’d

Example:
• There are three reasons why I prefer jogging to
other sports. One reason is that Jogging is a cheap
sport. I can practise it anywhere at any time with
no need for a ball or any other equipment. Another
reason why I prefer jogging is that it is friendly to
my heart. I don’t have to exhaust myself or do
excessive efforts while jogging. Finally, I prefer
this sport because it is safe. It isn’t as risky as other
sports like gymnastics, racing or horseback riding.
For all these reasons, I consider jogging the best
sport of all.
 2.2.3. Concluding Sentences

•This sentence signals the end of the paragraph

and leaves the reader with important points to
remember.
•This is the sentence at the end of a paragraph
which summarizes the information that has been
presented.
•It restates the main idea rather than merely
repeating it.
 cont’d

•“For all these reasons, I consider jogging the

best sport of all.”
•This is the concluding sentence from the
previous paragraph.
Activity-4: The following sentences are parts
of a paragraph, “What should I study at
University?” Read each of the following
sentences and determine whether it is
introductory, body or concluding sentence.
 cont’d

1. It was not an easy decision, but for the reasons listed

above, I have decided to study journalism.
2. It can be difficult to choose a subject to study at
university because there are so many choices, but by
considering my skills and interests, I have decided to
study journalism.
3. I have always enjoyed writing, so it is sensible to
choose a subject that involves writing. When I began
working, I would like to have the opportunity to travel,
and travel is often an important part of a journalist’s
job. Finally, I am also interested in photography, and
pictures are very important in journalism.
•Activity- 5: Read the detail and conclusion of
each paragraph below and Supply
topic sentence for each of them
1._____________________________________.
First, always begin with an indent. Use the width
of your thumb as a guide for how big it should
be. Next, skip lines to allow for revision later.
You’ll need the space for fixing mistakes. Also,
don’t forget to use capital letters to begin each
sentence and a period at the end. Paragraphs are
easy to write if you just follow the rules.
2.__________________________________________.
First, pizza is easy to eat. You don’t need any forks or
anything – just pick it up and eat it! Next, I like the gooey
cheese. I always order extra cheese on my pizza. Last, I
love pepperoni. It’s a little spicy, but not too much.
Clearly you can see why pizza is my favorite food.
3.__________________________________________.
First and most importantly, the work is very interesting. I
learn new things every day and I get to travel a lot. In
addition, my boss is very nice. She is always willing to
help me when I have a problem. I have also made many
new friends at my job. Last, but not least, the salary is
fantastic.
 2.3. Qualities of a good paragraph
2.3.1. Unity
• One important feature of an effective
paragraph is unity.
• It means all the sentences in a paragraph
discuss only one main idea.
• The main idea is stated in the topic sentence,
and then each supporting sentence develops
that idea.
• If a sentence in the paragraph does not relate to
the topic sentence, it is irrelevant and should be
deleted.
 cont’d
• For example, if the topic sentence states
that the paragraph is about the advantages
of CD‟s over cassette tapes,
• it must talk only about advantages– not
disadvantages.
• Discussing the disadvantages does not
support the topic sentence and should not
be included in the paragraph.
 Activity- 6
• Identify the sentence which is not related to
the given topic sentence
1. Topic Sentence: Bahir Dar is a pleasant place
to live.
A. There are three movie theatres in the town.
B. The people are friendly.
C. There is little crime.
D. There is a bad smell coming from the town
dump.
E. There are many places to shop for clothes
2. Topic Sentence: Your Uncle, Dawit
is very strong.
A. He has bulging arm and leg
muscles.
B. He can lift eighty-pound sacks of
cement easily.
C. He can lift me over his head without
trouble.
D. He is an excellent piano player.
3. Topic sentence: There are many ways to study
for a test.
A. You can review your notes a few hours the
night before the test.
B. You can study an hour a night the week of the
test.
C. You can study with friends and help each other.
D. You can get up early the morning of the test
and study.
E. You can improve your grade by attending
classes regularly
4. Topic sentence: Registration this
semester was confusing.
A. Many of the classes I wanted were
closed.
B. I had to go to six different buildings to
register.
C. I couldn‟t find the teachers whose
signatures I needed.
D. I had to fill out three different
applications.
E. The computer for registration worked very well.
 Activity- 7
• Each of the following paragraphs contains a sentence
that is not related to the topic for that paragraph.
Underline the sentence that does not belong to each
paragraph.
• Teeth have three important jobs. First, they chew.
They break food into small pieces and make it
easier to swallow. Teeth are for talking, too. Front
teeth help people say special sounds like the „th‟
in “toothbrush.” In addition, teeth also help
support the muscles around the mouth. They help
to give a face its shape. Sometimes I don‟t even
remember to brush my teeth at night.
• My little brother drives me crazy. He has red
hair and blue eyes. If I have a friend over, he
wants to play with us. When I need to do
homework, he races through the house like a
fire engine. Furthermore, when my family
goes for a ride in the car, he has to sit by the
window. Even talking on the phone when
he's around is a challenge. He always wants
to say "hello".When I complain, Mom and
Dad take his side. After all, he's only four
years old. I can't wait until he's five!
• In school, I didn't always feel accepted by my
classmates because I was deaf. When I was in
first grade, for example, Hailu, the boy who
sat next to me, used to stick his fingers in his
ears whenever he talked to me. The teacher
spoke with him about it several times, but he
would still tease me whenever the teacher
wasn't looking. Now Hailu is studying to be a
minister. In addition, other kids in class would
stare at my hearing aids. Worst of all, some of
them would talk to me in simple words as if I
were stupid.
 Activity- 8
• Read the following paragraphs and answer the questions that
follow.
• Why I want to learn English
(1) There are three reasons why I want to learn English. (2) One
reason is that English has become an international language. (3)
It is now used by most international companies, including the
company where I work, for business communications. (4)Another
reason why I want to learn English is so that I can travel to
English speaking countries. (5) The United States, England,
Australia and many other countries all use English as theiprimary
language.(6) Finally, I want to learn English because I plan to
move the U.S. in the future.(7) I will become a manager for my
company.(8) my command of English is excellent. (9) For all
these reasons I am very excited about learning English.
Now identify the following by writing numbers

• The topic sentence______

• The major supporting
details___________
• Concluding sentence____
• minor Supporting details_____________
Unity destroyer if any________
 2.3.2. Coherence
• Coherence is the smooth, continuous flow of
thoughts of the sentences and ideas presented
according to some logical principle.
• Coherence allows the reader to follow the flow
of ideas within the text without effort,
confusion, or frustration
• because all the sentences are connected
together and sequenced in a rational order in
their support of the topic sentence
 cont’d
• There are five devices that can be used to
connect sentences together to ensure
cohesion.
• These are personal pronouns,
demonstrative pronouns, the definite article,
use of synonyms, and linking or transitional
words.
[Link] Pronouns are words that refer
back to and substitute for nouns (called
antecedents) previously mentioned.
 cont’d
• Before a pronoun can be used in a text, an
antecedent must precede it,
• so the pronoun has something to refer
back to. Look at the following example:
• Ato Getachew graduated in English
language in 1984. He has been an
instructor since then
[Link] pronouns (this, that, these,
those) are also tools for connecting
sentences together.
• As with personal pronouns,
demonstrative pronouns require an
• antecedent (a previously mentioned noun)
before their use. Look at this example: