POWER POINT PRESENTATION FOR CA1 EXAM

TOPIC: Energy Bands and carrier transport in semiconductors

NAME: BIBASWAN BAJPAYEE

ROLL NO.: 18700323019
SUBJECT: ELECTRONIC DEVICES
SUBJECT CODE: EC-301
TEACHER’S NAME: PRADEEP KUMAR GHOSH
SUBMISSION DATE: 12/08/2024
 DIFFERENT BONDING FORCES IN SOLIDS
Broadly bonding in solids can be classified in three categories which are
discussed below:

• Ionic bond: This occurs between positively and negatively charged ions. In
ionic bonds, electrons are transferred from one atom to another, leading to
the formation of ions. The electrostatic attraction between these oppositely
charged ions holds the structure together. Ionic bonds are typically found in
salts like sodium chloride (NaCl).

• Metallic bonding: In metallic bonds, atoms in a metal lattice share their

valence electrons freely among a "sea of electrons." This delocalized
electron cloud allows metals to conduct electricity and heat effectively and
gives them malleability and ductility. Examples include copper and iron.
 ….CONTINUED
• Covalent bonding: This type of bonding involves the sharing of electron pairs
between atoms. Covalent bonds can be single, double, or triple, depending on the
number of shared electron pairs. This type of bonding is prevalent in molecules
like water (H₂O) and in network solids such as diamond, where a three-
dimensional network of covalent bonds creates a very strong and rigid structure.

• In context of this subject covalent bonds occupies the priority for a deep study.
 METALS SEMICONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS
Metals
• Band Structure: In metals, the valence band and conduction band overlap, or they are
so close together that there is no significant band gap. This overlap allows electrons
to flow freely between these bands.
• Band Gap: Essentially zero or very small.
• Electrical Conductivity: High, because electrons can move easily under an electric
field.
Semiconductors
• Band Structure: Semiconductors have a small, finite band gap between the valence
band and the conduction band.
• Band Gap: Typically between 0.1 eV and 3 eV.
• Electrical Conductivity: Intermediate. At low temperatures, semiconductors behave
like insulators. However, when heated or doped (adding impurities to change
conductivity), electrons gain enough energy to jump from the valence band to the
conduction band, allowing for controlled conductivity.
 Insulators
• Band Structure: Insulators have a large band gap between the valence band and
the conduction band.
• Band Gap: Typically greater than 3 eV.
• Electrical Conductivity: Very low, because it takes a lot of energy to excite
electrons from the valence band to the conduction band, making it difficult for
current to flow.
 E-K DIAGRAMS FOR DIRECT & INDIRECT BANDGAP
SEMICONDUCTORS
Creation of Electron-Hole Pairs (EHPs)
• Photon Absorption: A photon with energy equal to or greater than the band gap excites an
electron from the valence band to the conduction band, creating an electron-hole pair.
• Thermal Generation: At higher temperatures, thermal energy can excite electrons across
the band gap, generating EHPs.
• Impact Ionization: High-energy carriers (e.g. in strong electric fields) collide with atoms,
creating additional EHPs through ionization.
Recombination of Electron-Hole Pairs (EHPs)
• Radiative Recombination: An electron and a hole recombine, emitting a photon (light),
often used in LEDs and lasers.
• Non-Radiative Recombination: The electron-hole recombination releases energy as heat
rather than light, which occurs through lattice vibrations.
• An electron-hole recombination transfers energy to a third carrier, which gets excited to a
higher energy state, with energy ultimately lost as heat.
….CONTINUED
 GENERATION AND RECOMBINATION OF EHPS
Law of Mass Action
• The Law of Mass Action states that in an intrinsic (pure) semiconductor at thermal
equilibrium, the product of the concentrations of electrons (n) and holes (p) is a
constant, which is related to the square of the intrinsic carrier concentration ( 𝑛𝑖)
Key Points
• Thermal Equilibrium: This relationship holds when the semiconductor is not
subjected to external disturbances, such as strong electric fields or excess carrier
injection.
• Temperature Dependence: The intrinsic carrier concentration 𝑛𝑖 depends on
temperature and the material's band gap, which means n⋅p will change with
temperature.
 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

Donor Level
• Definition: An energy level just below the conduction band created by donor
impurities (e.g., phosphorus in silicon).
• Function: Provides extra electrons to the conduction band, making the
semiconductor n-type (negative).

Acceptor Level
• Definition: An energy level just above the valence band created by acceptor
impurities (e.g., boron in silicon).
• Function: Accepts electrons from the valence band, creating holes and making the
semiconductor p-type (positive).
….CONTINUED
 FERMI LEVEL AND FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION
• Fermi Energy: The energy level that separates occupied from unoccupied electron
states at absolute zero temperature. It's essentially the highest energy level occupied
by electrons in a material at 0 K.
• In metals, the Fermi energy lies within the range of available energy states, as there
are many electrons near this energy level. This high density of states near E​
contributes to the metal's high electrical conductivity.
• In intrinsic semiconductors (pure), the Fermi energy lies approximately midway
between the valence band and conduction band. In doped semiconductors, E​shifts
depending on whether the material is n-type or p-type
• n-Type: E​moves closer to the conduction band because of the added donor levels.
• p-Type: E​shifts closer to the valence band due to the added acceptor levels.
• In insulators, the Fermi energy is well within the band gap, far from both the valence
band and conduction band, reflecting their low electrical conductivity.
 ….CONTINUED
Significance:
• Electron Distribution: The Fermi energy helps determine the distribution of
electrons across different energy states. At temperatures above 0 K, electrons
occupy states up to E​according to the Fermi-Dirac distribution.
• Thermal Excitation: At temperatures above absolute zero, some electrons can be
thermally excited to higher energy states, but E​remains a reference point for
understanding electronic properties.
 DRIFT AND DIFFUSION
Drift: The movement of charge carriers in a semiconductor under the influence of an
electric field.
Mechanism:
• Electric Field: When an electric field (E) is applied to a semiconductor, it exerts a
force on the charge carriers, causing them to accelerate and move in the direction
of the field.
• Carrier Mobility: A material-specific parameter that measures how easily carriers
can move through the semiconductor.
Effect:
Current Flow: Drift is responsible for the current flow in semiconductor devices
when an external voltage is applied.
 ….CONTINUED

Drift: The movement of charge carriers from regions of high concentration to regions
of low concentration, driven by concentration gradients.
Mechanism:
• Concentration Gradient: Carriers move to equalize concentrations. This movement is
driven by random thermal motion and results in a net flow of carriers from areas of
higher density to lower density.
Effects:
• Carrier Redistribution: Diffusion is crucial in the formation of p-n junctions, where it
helps to establish equilibrium by redistributing carriers across the junction.
• Device Operation: In devices like diodes and transistors, diffusion plays a key role in
the operation and characteristics by affecting how carriers spread through the device.
….CONTINUED
THANK YOU