CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

Chapter 4
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 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1: Research Design
3.2: Population
3.3: Sample size
3.4: Sample Procedure
3.5: Data collection techniques/tools
3.6: Reliability and Validity.
3.7: Data Analysis techniques

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Definition of Research design
• A detailed outline of how an investigation
will take place. A research design will
typically include how data is to be
collected, what instruments will be
employed, how the instruments will be
used and the intended means for analyzing
data collected.

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 Definition of Research design
• Design – a plan or structured framework of
how you intend to conduct the research.
• Your research questions/objectives dictate
– which research strategy you should adopt,
– Which methods are appropriate for data
collection and analysis procedures, and
– What time horizon is necessary

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 The Purpose of your Research
• The way and direction you raised your
research objectives would result your
study to be in either:
– Exploratory,
– Descriptive,
– Explanatory, or
– Mixed methods.

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 Definition of Exploration
• To develop an initial, rough understanding
of a phenomenon.
• An exploratory study is undertaking when
not much is known about the situation at
hand, or no information is available on
how similar problems or research issues
have been solved in the past.

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 An exploratory study
– It is useful if you wish to clarify your
understanding of a problem
– The Principle ways of conducting
exploratory study are:
• A search of the literature
• Interviewing experts in the subject
• Conducting focus group interview
• Case studies.

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 Descriptive studies
• Definition:
• A descriptive study is undertaken in order to
ascertain and be able to explain the
characteristics of the variables of interest in a
situation.
• Particular measurement and reporting of the
characteristics of the population or
phenomenon.

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 Explanatory studies
• Explanatory studies look for explanations of
the nature of certain relationships.
• Hypothesis testing provides an understanding
of the relationships that exist between
variables.
Explanatory
studies

Causal Correlation
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 Explanatory studies

– Studies that establish a causal relationships

between variables could be considered as
explanatory research.
– Also, studies which investigate difference
between variables are termed as
explanatory research.
– The emphasis is to study a problem in order
to explain the relationship/difference
between variables.
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 Explanatory studies
• It is used to understand the trait or mechanisms
of the relationship between the independent and
dependent variable.
• It answers the question why and shows causality
(cause and effect) e.g. a descriptive research may
discover that 10 percent of the parents abuse
their children, whereas the explanatory researcher
will tell why parents abuse their children.
• It will test a theory’s prediction and principle
• It elaborates and enriches a theory’s explanation
• May refuse or accept the explanation or prediction
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 Research Strategies

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 Main Research Strategies cont…
• What is most important is not the label that is
attached to a particular strategy,
• But, whether it will enable you to answer your
research questions and meet you your
objectives.
• Choosing a research strategy is guided by your
research questions/objectives.

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 Main Research Strategies cont…
1. Experiment
– Examines a causal links between independent
(two groups of customers) and dependent
variables (e.g., purchasing behavior)
(Hakim,
2000).
– The two groups of independent variables may
be classified as “experimental group” and
“control group ”. (Placebo)
– It could be more tough for junior researchers.
01/17/2025 (Explanatory study)
Ali Yassin Sheikh, PhD 14
 Main Research Strategies, cont…
2. Survey
– It is information collection methods used to
• describe,
• compare, or
• explain individual and societal such as:
– knowledge,
– feelings,
– values,
– preferences, and
– Behaviour
(Fink, 2009).

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 Main Research Strategies cont…
2. Survey
– It is widely used to answer who, what,
where, how much and how many questions.
– It could be attached to exploratory and
descriptive researches.
– It is often used questionnaire and interview
administered to a sample allowing easy
comparison.

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 Main Research Strategies, cont…
3. Case study
– It refers to the collection and presentation of
detailed information about a particular participant
or small group ...
– It is used when the researcher intends to gain a rich
understanding of the context of the research and
the processes being performed (Morris & Wood,
1991).
– It is more familiar in exploratory and explanatory
research.
– It answers questions such as: “why?” and “how?”.
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 Main Research Strategies, cont…
3. Case study
– There are four types of case studies categorized into :
1. Single case: unique case which few have
considered before.
2. Multiple case: that is more than one case (the
need to generalize the findings)
3. Holistic case: treating the organization as holistic
case study.
4. Embedded case: considering number of sub-
units within the organization/ containing more
than one sub-unit of analysis (Yin, 2003)

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 Main Research Strategies, cont…
4. Action research
– The research is concerned with the
resolution of organizational issues,
– Its characteristics is the involvement with
members an organization over a matter
which is genuine concern to them.
– It has a process of diagnosing, planning,
taking action and evaluation.
– It should have implications beyond the
project.
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 Main Research Strategies, cont…
5. Grounded theory
– Is a systematic methodology in the social
sciences involving the discovery
of theory through the analysis of data.
– It is considered as the best example of
inductive approach.
– It is useful for studies predicting and
explaining behaviour.
– It is the systematic generation
of theory from systematic research.
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 Main Research Strategies, cont…
6. Ethnography
– is the systematic study of people and cultures. It is
designed to explore cultural phenomena where the
researcher observes society from the point of view of
the subject of the study.
– It has deep roots with the inductive approach.
– It was developed from the anthropology discipline.
– Its purpose is to describe and explain the social world being
researched.
– It emphasis phenomena within the context in which it occurs
– It is considered one of the very time consuming methods.
– Ethnographic approach is participant observation as a part of
field research.
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 Main Research Strategies, cont…
7. Archival research
– Is a type of primary research which involves
seeking out and extracting evidence from original
archival records.
– It uses administrative records and documents as
the principle source of data.
– It allows research questions which focus upon the
past and changes over time to be answered.
– It could be exploratory, explanatory or descriptive
research.

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Purpose Strategy Tool for Data
Collection
1. Survey 1. A search of the literature
2. Case study 2. Interviewing experts in the
3. Ethnography subject
Exploratory 4. Archival research 3. Conducting focus group
study 5. Action research interview
4. Case studies.

Descriptive 1. Archival research 1. Questionnaire

study 2. Ethnography 2. Interview

1. Experiment 1. Questionnaires
Explanatory 2. Grounded theory 2. Group discussions
Study 3. Archival research 3. Secondary data (Numerical
Data)
4. Interviews
5. Random sampling.
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 Multiple research methods
Research choices

Saunders et al, (2009)

Figure 5.4 Research choices
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Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Collection and Analysis Procedures, cont…
• Mono method:
– Using a single data collection technique and corresponding
analysis procedures.
• Multiple method:
– Employing more than one data collection techniques and
analysing procedures to answer your research question.
• Multi-method
– Refers to those combinations where more than one data
collection technique is used with associated analysis
techniques (but restricted to either quantitative or
qualitative method).

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 Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative
Data Collection and Analysis Procedures, cont…
• Mixed methods approach
– Mixed-method research
• Using both quantitative and qualitative data
collection and analysis procedures (but not
combining the data from both methods).
– Mixed-model research
• Using and combining qualitative and quantitative
data collection and analysis procedures (but
combining the data from both methods).

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 Time Horizons
• There are two time horizons:
– Cross-sectional studies:
• Studying a particular phenomenon at a
particular time.
• It often employ the survey strategy
(questionnaire or interview).
• It may be seeking to describe the incidence of a
phenomenon or to explain how factors are
related to in different organizations.
• Quantitative and qualitative methods could be
used.
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 Time Horizons, cont…
– Longitudinal Studies:
• Studies investigating “change” or
“development” should employ longitudinal
(more than one year).
• Observing people or events over time.
• It may facilitate studies developing
theories.
• in this time horizon, the basic question
under investigation could be:
– Has there been any change over a period of
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 Conclusion
• Process of Research Design:
– Name the research design
– Describe the design in very brief and
concise terms to show an understanding of
the method being used
– Provide a justification for the choice of the
design
– Explain how and where the design will be
used
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 SURVEY DESIGN

Data Collection Method :

1. Questionnaire
2. Interviews

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 Introduction
• Questionnaire:
– is the technique of data collection in which
each person is asked to respond to the same
set of questions in a predetermined order.
– It is widely used tool in survey studies.
– Careful design and pilot test is required
before administering the questionnaires to
the respondents.

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 Introduction, cont…
• Types of Questionnaires:
1. Self-administered: usually
completed by the respondents (e.g.,
internet-mediated, postal or mail or
delivery and collection
questionnaires).
2. Interviewer administered
• Telephone questionnaires
• Structured interviews
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 Introduction, cont…
• Choice of questionnaires:
– Is influenced by factors related to your
research questions and objectives:
• Size of sample
• Types of questions
• Characteristics of the respondents
• Response rate
– It is used either descriptive or explanatory
purpose

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 Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantage:
1. Provides efficient way of collecting responses
from a large sample.
2. Required less skill and sensitivity than semi-
structure and in-depth interviews.
3. Ability to generalize the results (depends to your
sample size)
• Disadvantage
1. You have only one chance of collecting data.
2. Not suitable for exploratory studies.
3. Difficult to maintain good response rate.

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 Types of Questions
1. Open questions (use only if you are unsure
the response)

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 Types of Questions
2. Dichotomous question is generally a
"Yes/No" close-ended question and is used
for basic validation.

• For example:

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 Types of Questions
3. List questions (offer a respond a list of
responses)

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 Types of Questions
4. Category questions (respondent’s
answer can fit only one category)

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 Types of Questions
5. Rating questions (used to collect
opinion questions using likert-scale
rating)

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 Types of Questions
6. Quantity questions (questions designed to
gather numerical data, asking "how many" or
"how much" of something, allowing for
measurable and statistically analyzable
results)

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 Types of Questions
7. Matrix questions ( type of question presented in a
grid format where rows list different statements or
questions, and columns provide a set of answer
choices, allowing respondents to select an answer
for each statement using the same set of options
across the entire question). For example,

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 Interviews

Ali Yassin Sheikh

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 Introduction
• Definition:
– An interview is a purposively discussion
between two or more people (Kahn &
Cannell, 1957).
– It can facilitate gathering valid and reliable
data that are relevant to your research
objectives.

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 Types of Interviews
• Interview may be both formalized, structured
(standardized) or informal and unstructured
conversations:

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 Types of Interviews, cont…
• Structured interview is “ a series of
predefined standardised questions every
candidate answers in the same order.”
• The recruiters collect all candidates'
answers. Then, they score these answers
based on the same rating system to easily
compare you to all the other candidates.
• They can be used to collect quantifiable data.

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 Types of Interviews, cont…
• Semi-structured and in-depth interviews are non
standardised
– They are often referred to as qualitative research
interviews.
– The researcher may have set of questions, although
these may vary from interview to interview.
– The order of questions may be varied depending on
flow of the conversation.
– Data will be recorded by audio-recording the
conversation or note taking.

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 Types of Interviews, cont…
• Un-structured interviews: are informal
– It is used for exploring in depth a general
area in which you are interested.
– There is no predetermined questions to
work through.
– However, you need to have a clear idea
about the aspect you intend to explore.

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 Types of Interviews, cont…
• In exploratory study, In-depth interviews
can be helpful to find out what is
happening to seek insights
• In descriptive studies, structured
interviews can be used as a means to
identify general patterns.
• In explanatory study, semi-structured
interviews may be used to understand the
relationship between variables.
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 Conclusion
• Process of Using Interview:
– The key point for you to consider is the
consistency between your:
• Research question and objectives
• The strategy you will employ, and
• The methods of data collection you will use
– The key to a successful interview is
careful preparation (five Ps: prior
planning prevents poor performance)
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