AIRCRAFT MATERIALS AND PROCESSES(21AE32)

COURSE LEARNING OBJECTIVES: This course will enable students to

1. Acquire knowledge of different aerospace materials & their properties.

2. Understand the Heat Treatment processes of aircraft metals and alloys

3. Characteristics and Applications of Aluminium alloys, Ceramics, Composites and Material

Testing..
Course Outcomes: At the end of this course, students are able to:
CO1 Apply the knowledge about the mechanical behaviour of different aircraft & aerospace
Materials.(L-3)
CO2 Understand use of ferrous and non-ferrous materials in aircraft construction
Materials(L-2)
CO3 Explain the applications of Aluminium alloys, Ceramics and Composites Materials. (L-2)

CO4 Evaluate the importance of high temperature materials and their characterization. (L-3)
 Syllabus: AIRCRAFT MATERIALS AND PROCESSES(21AE32)
Syllabus Of Finite Element (17ME61)
Module-2: Non-ferrous materials in aircraft construction:
Aluminum and its alloys: Types and identification.
Properties - Castings - Heat treatment processes - Surface
treatments.
Magnesium and its alloys: Cast and Wrought alloys - Aircraft
application, features specification, fabrication problems,
Special treatments.
Titanium and its alloys: Applications, machining, forming,
welding and heat treatment, Copper Alloys.
Wood and fabric in aircraft construction and specifications
Glues Use of glass, plastics & rubber in aircraft,
Introduction to glass & carbon composite.
ALUMINUM-ALLOY CASTINGS:
 Aluminum-alloy castings are frequently used in aircraft
construction.
As the case with all castings, their mechanical properties, shock
resistance, and ductility are inferior to those obtainable with wrought
alloys.
 There are three ways of casting aluminum alloys: (1) sand casting,
(2) permanent mold casting, and (3) die casting.
 Sand casting is the most common and is used for complicated
shapes or where only a few parts are required.
Permanent-mold casting is similar to sand casting, but a metal mold
is used which permits the making of many parts with better accuracy
than sand casting.
 Die casting is used when many small parts must be made and held
to close tolerances.
SAND CASTING:
PERMANENT-MOLD CASTING
 PERMANENT-MOLD CASTING:
 Permanent-mold casting is similar to sand casting except for the use of a metal
mold.
 The manufacture of this mold is relatively expensive and is only justified when a
large number of castings are required.
 Castings with complicated cores cannot be manufactured in metal molds.
Sometimes cores are fabricated of sand in the metal mold.
 This process is called semi-permanent mold casting. It utilizes the advantages of
both sand and mold casting.
 In·mold casting the molten meta! is fed into the mold by gravity. The mold is hot
but chills the molten metal as it comes in contact with it. Chilling results in more
rapid solidification and a finer grain.
 This finer grain makes permanent-mold castings more susceptible to heat
treatment,
 and improves their corrosion resistance and physical properties.
 Applications:
Alloys Nos. 122, A 132, and 142 have been used for engine pistons.
Alloy No. 356 has excellent casting qualities, good corrosion resistance and good
mechanical properties.
Die casting consists in forcing molten metal under pressure into water cooled dies.
The ·pressure imposed-and. the chilling of the molten metal result in a homogeneous,
fine-grained casting.
The castings have an excellent finish and may be held to very accurate dimensions. A
section tolerance of ±0.0025 inch can be held.
It is also possible to produce sections as thin as 0.030 to 0.040 inch but 1/t6 inch is
preferred. Because of the dimensional accuracy and fine finish, little machining is
necessary. Even holes are cored to size, ready for reaming or tapping.
 Magnesium alloys
• Magnesium alloys are well-known for being the lightest
structural alloys.
• They are made of magnesium, the lightest structural
metal, mixed with other metal elements to improve the
physical properties.
• These elements include manganese, aluminium, zinc,
silicon, copper, zirconium, and rare-earth metals.
• Some of magnesium’s favorable properties include low
specific gravity and a high strength-to-weight ratio.
• As a result, the material lends itself to a range of
automotive, aerospace, industrial, electronic,
biomedical, and commercial applications.
 Types and designation
• Cast alloys are basically made by pouring the molten
liquid metal into a mould, within which it solidifies into
the required shape.
• Common cast alloys of magnesium consist of different
amounts – but not exceeding 10% – of aluminium,
manganese and zinc as principal alloying elements.
• Other alloying elements have been recently used, as
well, mostly to enhance creep resistance, such as
zirconium and rare-earth metals.
• Besides, mechanical properties of cast alloys are
augmented by heat treatments.
• Wrought alloys, on the other hand, are alloys
subjected to mechanical working, such as forging,
extrusion, and rolling operations, to reach the desired
shape.
• Aluminium, manganese and zinc are also the main
alloying elements.
• Wrought alloys of magnesium are sorted into heat
treatable and non-heat treatable alloys.
• In order to understand the compositions of the alloys,
designation systems have been created showing the
alloying elements and their relative information.
• One of the most widely used designation systems is
the ASTM Standard Alloy Designation System.
• Magnesium Alloy: AZ91E-T6
• First part (AZ): designates the two main alloying
elements (aluminium, zinc)
• Second part (91): designates the percentage
amount of the main alloying elements (9% and
1%, respectively)
• Third part (E): differentiates alloys having the
same amounts of the main alloying elements
(fifth standardised alloy with the above
percentages)
• Fourth part (T6): designates the condition of the
alloy (temper)
 Applications
Magnesium alloys cover a wide array of applications, from
automotive and aerospace applications to electronic and biomedical
uses.
Structural applications
Automotive, aerospace, industrial, and commercial applications are
examples of structural applications.
The advantage of magnesium alloys to be used in such applications is
their light weight, high strength-to-weight ratio, high stiffness-to-
weight ratio, cast ability, machinability, and great damping.
Automotive: support brackets for brakes and clutch, housing for
transmission.
Aerospace: landing wheels, helicopter rotor fittings, gearbox
housings.
Industrial: high-speed operating machinery, such as textile machines
Commercial: luggage, hand tools, computer housings, ladders
Electronic applications
Electronic applications include electronic packaging, hard
drive arms, cell phone and portable media device
housings. Magnesium alloys are being used instead of
plastics due to their light weight, strength and durability.
They also are relatively better for heat dissipation and
protection against electromagnetic and radio frequency
interference [5].
Medical applications
Portable medical equipment and wheelchairs that require
light material make good use of magnesium alloys. Also,
cardiovascular stents and orthopaedic devices are
potential applications of some magnesium alloys due to
magnesium’s biocompatibility and bio absorbability.
 TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
• TITANIUM the so-called
wonder metal, was first
discovered in 1789 by an
English clergyman named
GREGOR but it was five years
later that the German chemist
KLAPRATH called the new
element Titan because of the
strong chemical bond it had
with other elements.
• The most important titanium
ores are RUTILE (Ti02) and
iLMENITE (Fe0-Ti02).
• Descaling
• Removal of the scale by machining is very difficult and expensive.
• Scale removal by chemical methods is practical but must be closely
controlled or serious embrittlement of the titanium alloy parts can result.
• Scale is formed on titanium alloys as soon as the temperature of
approximately 600°F. is reached and if temperatures of 1700°F. are used for
fabrication, scale can be formed having thicknesses in excess of 0.003 in.
depending, of course, on the atmosphere, time at a particular temperature,
and other factors.
Pickling:
A widely used pickling solution is 20% HN03 plus. 2% hydrofluoric
by weight. The bath is heated to TSO"F. and immersion time will
vary depending upon scale thickness (1-3 minutes is average).
Heavy scale can be removed by a molten, sodium-hydride salt bath
with subsequent acid pickling but, here again, the temperatures and
bath control must be closely controlled. The use of abrasive
cleaning is finding wide use; liquid honing gives an excellent finish
on descaled titanium forgings.
 Casting.
• Titanium and its alloys have been successfully cast using modifications
of standard techniques.
• The use of split molds has produced castings of excellent surface finish,
a high degree of soundness, and good mechanical properties.
• Owing to titanium's affinity for oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon, it is
necessary to melt under a vacuum or in the presence of an inert gas.
• Since molten titanium attacks any crucible which has been tried to date,
melting is carried out in a shell of solid titanium which in tum is inside
of a graphite crucible.
• Power for melting is supplied by a D.C. welding _generator. Molds are
given a special refractory slurry to prevent carbon pick-up.
• Patterns for split mold castings are made by conventional method~
using a shrinkage
 Machining.

• The machining of titanium and its alloys at first makes the

machine shop very cautious but as experience is gained using
different rake angles, cutting speeds, setups and lubricants,
the problem is not so difficult.
• Turning operations compare favorably with 18-8 stainless
providing carbide cutlers are used and skin contamination is
not excessive.
• Milling presents some problems due to the welding of the
titanium chip to the cutter.
• A climb cut is recommended for slab milling.
• The work should be positioned so that the start of the cut has
the largest bite and as the cut progresses the bite becomes
smaller; in this setup the welded chip is at a minimum.
 Application of Titanium Alloys
Titanium alloys finds wide • Orthopedic pins and screws
application in • Orthopedic cables
• Chemical processing • Ligature clips
• Chlorate manufacturing • Surgical staples
• Desalination • Springs
• Marine applications • Orthodontic appliances
• Production Equipment
• In joint replacements
Components.
• Aircraft turbines
• Cryogenic vessels
• Engine components • Bone fixation devices
• Aircraft structural components • Hydrometallurgical applications
• Aerospace fasteners • Elevated temperature chemical
• High-performance automatic parts manufacturing
• Marine applications • Cryogenic Applications
• Sports equipments
 COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS
• COPPER, brass, and bronze have a limited use in aircraft
construction.
• They do have important specialized applications, however, such as
bearings and fuel and oil lines.
• Copper wire is used throughout the electrical system.
• In general these metals are corrosion resistant, nonmagnetic, fairly
strong, and.
• Good conductors of electricity.
• Copper Wire.
• A soft copper wire is used as a locking wire in aircraft
construction.
• It is drawn from pure copper and has a tensile strength
approaching 40,000 psi and an elongation of 25%
• Copper Tubing
• Copper tubing is very generally used for fuel and oil lines.
• The Copper used in the manufacture of this tubing must contain
at least 99.90% Copper.
• The tubing is purchased in the soft annealed condition and it is
seamless drawn.
 BRASS

• Brass is a copper alloy consisting of a solid solution of zinc in copper.

• In addition to zinc and copper, brasses sometimes contain a small
amount of aluminum, iron, lead, manganese, magnesium, nickel,
phosphorus, or tin.
• Brass with a zinc content of 30% to 35% is very ductile, and with 45%
zinc content it has a relatively high strength.
• Brasses with a zinc content up to 37% are in so-called "alpha
solution," while above that percentage a "beta solution" condition
exists.
• It is the difference between these two conditions that accounts for
the ductility of the low-zinc brass and the strength of the high-zinc
brass.
• Alpha- solution brass can only be annealed, but beta-solution brass
can be increased in strength by heat treatment.
 BRONZE
 Bronzes are copper alloys containing tin.
 Lead, zinc, and phosphorus are also present in some
 bronzes but do not total more than 15%.
 There is also an aluminum bronze in which
aluminum is the major alloying element.
 The true bronzes have up to 25% tin, but those
containing below 11 % tin are the most useful.
 Bronzes by excellent bearing qualities due to the
fact that the tin is in a hard delta solid solution in the
copper.
 Muntz Metal
• Muntz metal is a brass composed of 60% copper and 40%
zinc.
• It has excellent corrosion-resisting qualities in contact with
salt water.
• It can be increased in strength by heat treatment.
• When heated to 1500°F. the beta solution absorbs the
alpha solution.
• If quenched in water from this temperature the
homogeneous beta condition is retained and the strength
increased about 50%.
• If the heated metal is cooled slowly as in air, the absorbed
alpha is reprecipitated and the properties of annealed
material are obtained.
 SEASON CRACKING
 Many of the brasses and bronzes are subject to a
phenomenon called season cracking.
 These metals crack spontaneously after being in
service for a period of time.
 It 1s believed this cracking is due to internal
stresses left in the metal by cold working.
 A low-temperature anneal is usually sufficient to
relieve these stresses and avoid season cracking.
 Specifications generally require the following test
for material subject to season cracking.
Where is glass used in aircraft?
Glass is used in aircraft to build windshield and window
panes, canopies, panels for cabin interiors, mirrors for
lavatories, interior and exterior light-emitting diode (LED)
lighting solutions, protections for sensors and
instrumentation, ultrasonic transducers, and colored filters
for enhanced flight vision systems.
Transparent materials commonly used in the construction of
windshields and windows are glass, polymethyl-
methacrylate (acrylic), polycarbonate, and interlayer
materials. The characteristics of these materials require
special engineering solutions for aircraft windshield and
window panel designs.