Manufacturing Technology (2022)

Module 1

• Explain the significance of manufacturing process

and the relevance of foundry in manufacturing.

Prepared by:
Manu K Joseph
Lecturer
SMPT
• Explain manufacturing process and various mechanical
properties associated with engineering materials.

• Explain the types, allowances and materials of patterns.

• Discuss about the ingredients/ types/properties of

moulding sand.

• Describe different types of moulding process.

• Discuss about the gating system and functions

• of riser.
• What Is Manufacturing?

– The term manufacturing refers to the processing of raw

materials or parts into finished goods through the use of
tools, human labor, machinery, and chemical processing.

• Manufacturing is integral to the economy.

• Most products were handmade using human labor and basic

tools before the Industrial Revolution.

• The Industrial Revolution led to mass production, assembly line

manufacturing, and the use of mechanization to manufacture
larger quantities of goods at a lower cost.
• Materials:
– A material is any substance that an object is made from.

• Engineering materials:
– Materials used in engineering applications are known as
engineering materials
– Main classes of present engineering materials are:
• Metals and alloys
• Ceramics
• Polymers / organic compounds
• Composites
• A metal is an element that form positive ions and
has metallic bonds.
– Metals conduct heat and electricity and are malleable
and ductile.

• An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements of which

at least one is a metal.
• Organic materials are characterized by presence of
carbon atoms where as inorganic materials do not
contain carbon atoms.
– Organic compound materials contain carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and their derivatives. Inorganic compound materials
do not contain oxygen or hydrogen and their derivatives.

• A ceramic is an inorganic non-metallic solid made up of

either metal or non-metal compounds that have been
shaped and then hardened by heating to high
temperatures.

• Composites are multi phase materials obtained by

artificial combination of different materials to attain
Properties of engineering materials:
• Property of a material is a factor which defines the
behaviour of a material under various conditions.
– The material property is independent of the dimension
or shape of the material.

• Mechanical properties: strength, hardness,

toughness, brittleness, creep, fatigue, stiffness,
ductility, malleability, elasticity, plasticity, etc.

• Electrical properties: resistance and resistivity,

conductance, conductivity, capacitance, etc.
• Magnetic properties: permeance, reluctance,
hysteresis, etc.

• Thermal properties: specific heat, thermal

conductivity, thermal resistance , thermal diffusivity,
etc.

• Chemical properties: corrosion resistance, acidity and

alkalinity, etc.

• Physical properties: density, viscosity, colour, finish,

porosity, specific gravity, melting point, etc.
Stress (σ):
• Mechanical stress is a measure of internal resistance exhibited by a
body or material when an external force is applied to it.
• It is denoted by sigma (σ).
• Mechanical stress is equal to the internal resisting force acting on a
body per unit area.
– It will be mathematically equal to force acting on a body per unit area.

– Where
• σ = Stress (also called intensity of stress)
• F or P = external force or load
• A = Area of the cross section
• S.I unit= Pascal (Pa)-N/m₂ or N/mm2 (MPa)
• A body subjected to the action of stress is said to be strained, and the
resulting change in shape is called deformation.
Strain (ε) :
• When a body is acted upon by an external force, a
deformation or change in dimension takes place.
• The ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension
is known as strain.
• Strain is dimension less.
• Denoted by epsilon (ε).
 Mechanical properties:
• The properties of materials which are associated
with the behaviour of materials under the action of
external forces or loads are known as mechanical
properties.

• These properties are expressed in terms of

quantities that are functions of stress or strain or
both.
Strength:
• The strength of a material is its capacity to withstand an
applied load without failure or plastic deformation.

• According to the type of loading, there are tensile,

compressive, shear, torsional and bending strength.

• Strength is generally expressed in Kg/cm2 or N/m2.

• Stress is a measure of how much force an object

experiences per unit area, and strength is a material's
ability to withstand stress.
• Tensile strength
Longitudinal or axial
• Compressive strength
• Shear or tangential strength
• Transverse or bending strength
• Twisting or torsional strength
• Tensile strength:
– Capacity of a material to withstand destruction when it
is subjected to axial pull (tensile load) acting normally
across the cross section.

• Compressive strength:
– Capacity of a material to withstand destruction when it
is subjected to axial push (compressive load) acting
normally across the cross section.
• Shear strength:
– Capacity of a material to withstand destruction when it
is subjected to tangential load (shear load) tending to cut
or slide the part across the resistive section.

• Torsional strength:
– Capacity of a material to withstand destruction when it
is subjected to torsional load (load tending to twist the
part).
• Bending strength:
– Capacity of a material to withstand destruction, when it is subjected to bending
across the resisting section.

– Bending causes the material to curve and results in compressing the material
on one side and stretching it on the other.
• The load (stress) necessary to fracture unit cross
section of a material is known as Ultimate
strength.

– The ultimate strength of a material in tension is

sometimes referred as tenacity (Ultimate Tensile
Strength – UTS)

• Ultimate tensile strength is a simple measure of

maximum force for breaking a fiber however, tenacity is
a measure of the same force in relation to the linear
density of the fiber or yarn.
• Hardness:
– Ability of a material to resist wear, scratching, abrasion,
indentation or penetration by other materials.
• Hardness is a desirable property for dies and punches, cutting tools,
saws, files, etc.

• Toughness:
– Amount of energy a material can absorb before failure takes
place.
OR
– Ability of a material to withstand repeated bending or twisting
without fracture.

• The area under the stress-strain curve up to fracture point indicates

the toughness.
• Resilience:
– Capacity of a material to absorb energy elastically.

• It is measured by the amount of energy that can be stored per

unit volume after being stressed to elastic limit.

• This property is desirable in materials used for springs.

• It corresponds to the area under stress-strain curve within

elastic limit.
• Brittleness:
– Brittleness is the property of breaking without appreciable
deformation.

– For a perfectly brittle material yield strength and ultimate

strength are same as they do not experience plastic deformation.

– Brittleness is sometimes also known as shortness in the case of

metals.
• Hot or red shortness means that the metal is brittle when in red hot
state.
• Cold shortness means that the metal is brittle in cold state.

– Metals with percentage elongation less than 5% are brittle in

behaviour.
• Percentage elongation =
• Creep:
– Time and temperature dependent slow and continuous
deformation of a material under steady load is known as
creep.
– Creep strength is defined as the maximum stress in a
material that will result in a specified amount of creep in
a given time at a constant temperature.
• Fatigue:
– Fatigue failure is the formation and propagation of cracks
due to a repetitive or cyclic load.
• Fatigue failure usually occurs abruptly (suddenly) without
much indication of any sign of failure.

– The fatigue strength or endurance limit of a material is

the highest stress that a material can withstand for a
given number of cycles without breaking.
– Fatigue Limit
• Fatigue limit (also sometimes called the
endurance limit) is the stress level, below which
fatigue failure does not occur.
– This limit exists only for some ferrous (iron-base) and
titanium alloys, for which the S–N curve becomes
horizontal at higher N values. Other structural metals,
such as aluminium and copper, do not have a distinct
limit and will eventually fail even from small stress
amplitudes.

– Fatigue Life
• It is the number of cycles to cause failure at a
specified stress level, as taken from the S–N plot
• Stiffness:
– The resistance of a material to elastic deformation or
deflection is called stiffness or rigidity.

• Modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.

– When a body is loaded axially/longitudinally, the ratio of stress to
corresponding strain is a constant with in the elastic limit and this
constant of proportionality is known as modulus of elasticity or young ′s

𝜎/𝜀=𝐸
modulus and is denoted by E.

– Unit of Young′s modulus is same as that of stress.

• A stiffer material will have only slight deformation.

– For eg. Steel is more stiffer than aluminium.
– In tensile and compressive stress, it is called ‘Modulus of stiffness ‘or
‘Modulus of elasticity’; in shear ‘Modulus of rigidity’; in volumetric
distortion the ‘Bulk modulus’.
• Ductility:
– Ability of a material to be drawn out into thin wire.

• A ductile material must be both strong and plastic.

• The usual measures of ductility are the percentage elongation

and percentage reduction of area of a material in tensile test.

Percentage elongation =

• A material with more than 5% elongation are considered as

ductile.
– Eg.: Gold, platinum, silver, iron etc.
• Malleability:
– Ability of a material to be flattened into thin sheets without
cracking under compressive stress.
• Eg.: Gold, aluminium, copper, etc.

• Elasticity:
– Ability of a material to regain its original shape and size after
the removal of the applied load.
• With in elastic limit, up to proportional, a linear relationship exists
between applied stress and developed strain. The proportionality
constant between stress and strain is called Young’s modulus.

• Plasticity:
– Ability of a material to undergo some degree of permanent
deformation without rupture.
• Plastic deformation will takes place only after the elastic range has
• Plasticity is important in forming, shaping and many
other cold (below recrystallization temperature) and
hot (above recrystallization temperature)working
processes.

– Grains or crystals are deformed when a metal is

deformed plastically.

– A process by which deformed grains are replaced by a

new set of defect-free grains that nucleates and grow
until the original grains have been entirely consumed is
called recrystallization.
• The temperature at which new grains are formed in a metal is
called recrystallization temperature.
Foundry:
• A shop where moulding, casting and their related
processes are conducted is called a foundry shop.

• Mould is a container or hollow form in to which

molten metal is poured to cool into a desired
shape, given by this container.

• Casting is a process of pouring molten metal into a

mould and allowing it to solidify.
• The whole process of producing castings may be
divided into five stages:
– Pattern making
– Moulding and core making
– Melting and casting
– Fettling (Cleaning or trimming rough edges)
– Testing and inspection

• Except pattern making, all other stages to produce

castings are done in foundry shop.
• Foundry tools and equipment:
– Hand tools
– Moulding boxes
– Moulding machines
– Melting equipment
– Pouring, shake out and finishing equipment.
– Inspection and testing equipment
 Foundry hand tools
• Bellow: To blow loose particles of sand from mould cavity.

• Lifter: To clean and finish the bottom and side of mould cavity.

• Gaggers: To reinforce sand and to support unsupported portion of sand

• Slick(heart and square):A double ended tool to repair mould surface

and corners
• Rammers:
– Hand rammer: To compact sand by ramming in bench
moulding.
– Floor rammer: To compact sand by ramming in floor
moulding.

• Riddle: To remove foreign materials from sand.

• Sprue pin / riser pin: Tapered wooden peg used for
making pouring sprue or riser hole in mould.

• Swab: A small brush with hemp fibres used for

moisturising the sand around the edge before the
pattern is withdrawn.

• Trowels: Finishing flat surface and corners of mould.

• Showel:Mixing and transferring moulding sand.

• Vent wire: To make small holes in the mould to allow exit of gases and
steam during casting.

• Strike off bar: A piece of metal or wooden bar to remove excess sand
from the mould after ramming.

• Draw spike: To rap and draw pattern from the mould

• Draw screw and rapping plate: Used with big
pattern. Rapping plate is screwed to the pattern
with draw screws and by lifting the draw screws
pattern can be withdrawn.

• Gate cutter: To cut the feeding gate which connects

runner and mould cavity.
• Moulding flask or box: A wood or metal frame in
which mould is made
Two types: Box flask and snap flask

• Moulding board: A wooden board to support flask

and pattern during moulding
• Pattern making:
– A pattern is a model or the replica of the object to be
cast.
• It may be used for forming an impression called mould cavity.

– The process of making a pattern is known as pattern

making.

– Patterns are made of different materials such as wood,

metal, plaster, etc.
• Functions of pattern:
– To produce the cavity of required shape and size so as to
achieve components with required dimension.
– To minimize defects in casting.
– To get castings with good surface finish.
– Proper pattern selection can minimize cost.
– Provides core prints which help in positioning core in
case of hollow castings.
– Establishes parting line and surface in the mould.
– Provide runner, gates and risers for feeding the molten
metal.
• Types of patterns:
– The type of pattern selected for a particular casting
depends up on the following conditions:
• Shape and size of casting.
• Number of castings required.
• The type of moulding method to be used. (i.e. hand or
machine moulding).
• Problems associated with the moulding operation.
• Common types of patterns are:
– Solid or single piece pattern
– Split pattern
– Match plate pattern
– Loose piece pattern
– Gated pattern
– Sweep pattern
– Segmental pattern
– Shell pattern
– Follow board pattern
– Master pattern
– Skeleton pattern
• Solid or single piece pattern:
– Made in one piece and carries no joint
partition or loose pieces
– Single piece pattern is accommodated either
in the drag or cope.

• Split pattern:
– Patterns with complicated shapes are not
made in single piece, but as split patterns or
as multi piece patterns.
– The upper and lower parts of the split
patterns are accommodated in the cope and
drag portions of the mould respectively.
– Dowel pins are used for keeping the
alignment between the two parts of the
pattern.
• Match plate pattern:
– This patterns are generally used with moulding machines for mass
production of small castings.
– The cope and drag portions of the pattern are mounted on opposite
sides of a wood or metal plate conforming to the parting line.
– The gate and runner are also connected to the plate with the pattern.
– Manufacturing cost is quite high.
• Loose piece pattern:
– Projections or hanging parts of the pattern make the removal of
the pattern difficult. To overcome these patterns are produced as
assemblies of loose component pieces.
– The loose parts or pieces remain attached with the main body of
the pattern with the help of dowel pins.
– After moulding, the main body of the pattern is first drawn from
the moulding box and there after the loose parts are removed.
• Gated pattern:
– A group of patterns attached with a common gating
system are called gated patterns.
– Sections connecting different patterns serve as runner
and gates and thus eliminates the hand cutting of the
same during moulding.
– For mass production of small castings.
• Sweep pattern:
– A sweep pattern is a template of wood or metal, which has a
contour corresponding to the shape and size of the casting.
– When rotated about a central spindle, it sweeps the shape of
the casting into the sand all around the circumference.
– A sweep pattern is preferred for producing large castings of
circular sections and symmetrical shapes.
• Segmental pattern:
– A segmental pattern is used for moulding parts having
circular sections, like rings, pulleys, wheel rims, etc.
– It prepares the mould by parts.
– After ramming one section it moves forward from one
section to another since the complete mould is formed.
• Shell pattern:
– It is a hollow construction like a shell, usually made in two parts,
parted along the centre line and both the halves are doweled
accurately.
– The outside shape is used as a pattern and inside is used as a core-
box.
– The shell pattern is employed for making cast iron pipes and pipe
fillings.
• Skeleton pattern:
– Employed for producing a few large castings.
– It is filled with loam sand and rammed. The excess sand is
removed by means of a strickle. A half-skeleton pattern for
a hollow pipe is shown in the diagram.

– Since the pipe is symmetrical about the parting line, the

same pattern will serve the purpose of moulding both the
halves in two different flasks. These two flasks are joined
• Master pattern:
– Accurately finished wooden pattern with required allowances .
( Double shrinkage allowance and the required machining
allowance.)
– Size of master pattern = Size of the final casting to be made +
Shrinkage allowance for the material of final casting + Shrinkage
allowance of the metal of which the pattern is to be made + Finishing
allowance for the metal pattern.

• A follow board is used to support a pattern during moulding which have

an odd shape or thin wall. It acts as seat for the pattern.
• Pattern materials:

– Selection of material for making a pattern is

influenced by the following factors:

• The volume of production.

• Dimensional accuracy and surface finish required.
• Method of moulding like hand or machine moulding.
• Complexity and size of the casting.
• Cost of the pattern material.
• Possibility of design change.
• Requirements of a good pattern:
– Should be light in weight.
– Strong and hard.
– Ability to resist wear and abrasion.
– Capability to resist corrosion and other chemical
reactions.
– Low cost.
– Should be dimensionally stable.
– Easy availability.
– Could provide good surface finish.
– Should be durable.
– Unaffected by variation in temperature and humidity.
Commonly used pattern material:
• Wood:
– Most common material used for making pattern.
– Optimal for very large casting and small quantity production.
– Common woods used:
• Teak, mahogany, pine, walnut and deodar
– Advantages:
• Cheap and easy availability.
• Can be easily shaped to intricate designs.
• Light in weight and can be easily changed.
• Can be preserved with wood preservatives.
– Disadvantages:
• Susceptible to moisture and may swell, crack or split.
• Low resistance to abrasion.
• Shorter life.
• Low strength
• Metal:
– Used for large scale production with closer dimensional
accuracy.
– Metal patterns are cast from wooden patterns called
master patterns.
– Advantages:
• Do not absorb moisture and do not change their shape and size.
• Durable.
• High strength
• Precise and smooth surface finish
– Disadvantages:
• Tendency to get corroded.
• High cost.
• Heavy.
• Hard to modify and repair.
• Metal pattern materials:
– Aluminium and its alloys:
• Most commonly used metal for patterns and considered the best.
• It is soft, easy to work with, resistant to corrosion and has good strength and
surface finish.
• Is subjected to abrasive action of sand and have poor repairability.
– Steel:
• Has good strength, machinability, wear resistance and good reparability.
• Weight is high and poor resistance to rust and corrosion.
– Cast iron:
• Cheap, good machinability, high resistance to abrasion, good strength and
good surface finish.
• Hard, brittle and excessive weight.
– Brass:
• Used for very small patterns.
• High strength, resistance to corrosion, good machinability, good surface
finish and can be used successfully for casting thin sections.
• Can be joined by soldering and brazing.
• Plasters:
– Made of gypsum cement or plaster of paris.
– Have high compressive strength.
– Normally plasters expand during solidification.
– For making small patterns and core boxes of intricate
shape.
– Advantages:
• Easily cast into complex shapes
• Can be worked easily.
• Very high compressive strength.
• They are cheap.
– Disadvantages:
• Only be used for small castings.
• It expands during solidification.
• There are different type of gypsum plaster available with
• Plastics:
– Widely used as pattern material now a days.
– Thermo-setting plastic such as epoxy, phenolic,
polyurethane, etc. with suitable fillers are most
commonly used for making patterns.
– Advantages:
• Light in weight and reasonable cost.
• Not affected by moisture.
• Good durability and formability.
• Have good compressive strength.
– Disadvantages:
• They are fragile.
• Not suitable for machine moulding (jolting) as it will not
withstand severe shock.
• Narrow section may need metal reinforcement.
• Wax:
– Excellent choice for investment casting.
– Most commonly used wax are bee wax, shellac, paraffin wax,
etc.
– Wax patterns is made by a die or metal mould made in two
parts which is water cooled; into which hot wax is poured and
as the wax solidifies, the parts of die is separated to get
pattern.
– Advantages:
• Provide very good surface finish.
• Mould cavity will not be damaged while removing the pattern. [To
remove wax pattern, the mould is inverted and heated so the
molten wax flow out of the mould]
• Provide high accuracy for costs.
– Disadvantages:
• Equipment and process costs are high.
• Pattern allowances:

– Shrinkage (contraction) allowance

– Draft (taper) allowance

– Machining (finishing) allowance

– Distortion (camber) allowance

– Rapping (shake) allowance

• Shrinkage allowance:
– Allowance to be added in the size of the pattern to
compensate the contraction of the metal during casting.
– A master pattern from which the metal patterns are
made may have double shrinkage allowances.

• During cooling of the material in casting process,

liquid, solidification (phase transformation)
Shrinkage and solid shrinkage takes place.
– Liquid and solidification shrinkages are compensated by
providing a riser in the casting process.
– Solid shrinkage is compensated by giving the shrinkage
allowance. (Expressed in mm/m)
• Draft allowance:
– Given to all vertical surfaces (internal and external), for easy
removal of the pattern from the sand, with out damaging the
mould.
– Inner surface(5-80) requires more draft than the outer surface(1-
30).
– Hand moulding is provided more draft than machine moulding.
– Smaller vertical surface needs more draft angle than large surface.
– It can be expressed either in millimetre per metre on a side or in
degrees.
• Machining allowance:

– Provided on the pattern, if the casting is to be

finished or machined further after casting.

• The surface finish and dimensional accuracy obtained

by casting is poor and usually fine details of the
surface are eliminated.

• To obtain good surface finish and accuracy, processes

like turning or grinding is used after casting, and to
compensate this loss, machining or finishing
allowances are given (Ranges from 2mm – 15 mm).
• Distortion (camber) allowance:
– When the metal is in cooling process, stress is
developed in the solid metal due to uneven metal
thickness in the casting as the contraction is not
uniform. This stress may cause distortion or
bending in the casting.

– This distortion can be practically eliminated if we

make the pattern initially distorted in the
opposite direction, so that the casting after
cooling neutralizes the initial distortion given on
the pattern and acquires correct shape. This is
called camber allowance.
• Rapping allowance:

– When the pattern is to be removed from the sand

mold, the pattern will have to be shaken slightly
for easy removal, and this will cause an
enlargement of the mould cavity .

– To compensate this, the patterns are made

slightly smaller and this negative allowance given
in the dimension of pattern is known as shaking
or rapping allowance.
Properties of moulding sand:
• Porosity (Permeability):
– Property of moulding sand which allows the
passage of gases and steam through the sand
mould.
• When hot metal is poured into mould, a very large
volume of gases and steam is evolved. If the sand
doesn’t have adequate permeability, defects like blow
holes, etc. may happen.
• Moulding sands with coarse sand grains are
permeable.
• Low percentage of clay and soft ramming increases
the permeability.
• Refractoriness:
– Ability of moulding sand to withstand high temperatures
without fusion or any physical change.
• Adhesiveness
– It is the property of moulding sand due to which it
adheres to the surface of the moulding boxes and thus
makes it possible to mould cope and drag.
• Cohesiveness
– It is ability of sand particles to stick together
– It is due to this property that the patterns can be
removed without breaking the mould and mould retain
its shape even after pouring of molten metal
• Collapsibility
– It is the property of moulding sand due to which
it automatically gets collapse after solidification
of the casting allowing free contraction of metal
• Plasticity Or Flowability
– It is the property of moulding sand due to which
it flows during ramming to all portions of the
moulding flask and packs around the pattern to
acquire desired shape
 TYPES OF SAND USED IN MOULD
1. Green sand
• Sand in natural or moist condition
• It is a mixture of silica sand with 5 to 20 % clay, having
total amount of water from 5 to 8 %
• Used for small size casting of ferrous and non ferrous
alloys
[Link] sand
• Green sand moulds when baked or dried before pouring
the molten metal are called dry sand moulds
• It possess greater strength, rigidity and thermal stability
than green sand moulds
• The dry sand moulds are used for making large and heavy
[Link] Sand
• It is a mixture of 50% sand and 50% clay
• Moulds for casting large bells, cylinders etc. are made up
of brick framework and lined with loam sand and dried
[Link] sand
• It is a specially prepared moulding sand which covers the
pattern from all around
• Since it comes in contact with the molten metal when
poured, it should possess high strength and refractoriness
[Link] sand or flour sand
• Sand used to back up the facing sand and not used next
to pattern
• Old repeatedly used moulding sand is used for this
purpose
[Link] Sand
• It is sprinkled on the pattern and pattern surface of
the mould so that the sand masses of cope and
drag separates without clinging and do not stick to
the pattern
[Link] sand(Oil sand)
• It used for the preparation of cores
• It is prepared by mixing silica sand and core oil
composed of linseed oil, resin and other binding
materials
• It possess high strength, permeability, refractoriness
and collapsibility
 Composition of moulding sand
[Link] sand:
• Major constituent of moulding sand(80 to 82 %)
• It is product of breaking up of quartz rocks
• It is essentially silicon dioxide (Si02) found in nature on
the bottoms and banks of rivers, lakes and seashore.
• Pure silica sand lacks binding quality
[Link]:
• Holds the sand grains together, impart strength,
resistance to erosion and breakage
• Organic binders :Linseed oil,Dextrin,Resin etc.
• Inorganic binders: Fire clay,Bentonite,Illite,Kaolinite etc.
3. Additives:
• Materials other than binders to develop certain
desirable properties in moulding sand
–Sea coal, silica flour, wood flour and iron oxide are a few
commonly used additives.
• Sea coal improves surface finish; Silica flour increases
hot strength and resists metal penetration; Graphite
increases mouldability and improves surface finish;
Wood flour increases flowability and collapsibility of
sand
[Link]:
It is responsible for moulding action of clays, the
amount of which may vary from 1.5% to 8 %
 CORES
• Cores are materials used for producing holes and interior
cavities in casting
• Core is an obstruction positioned in the mould, which does not
permit molten metal to fill the space occupied by the core, thus
produce hollow casting
• Cores are placed in the mould in specially created cavities called
core prints
• Cores must possess sufficient strength to resist erosion during
filling of metal, high permeability, refractoriness and
collapsibility, dimensional stability with minimum expansion and
contraction
• They are made up of sand, metal, plaster or ceramics
• Cores are used to form air space between the cooling fins of an
air cooled engine, to make water cooling chamber in IC engines
 CHAPLETS
• Chaplets are metal shapes which are positioned between
mould and core surface.
• They are used to overcome displacement of the core due to
buoyant force exerted on it by the molten metal.
• It should be of the same material which is being cast.
• As the molten metal is poured ,chaplets melts and become
a part of casting.
 CHILLS (Chiller)
• Metal pieces inserted in casting which promotes directional
solidification
• Thinner section cools faster than thicker ones resulting in
uneven contraction and distortion
• This can be over come by inserting metal chills in thicker section
to accelerate cooling rate

• Chills are of two types: Internal and External

1. Internal chills: Placed in the mould cavity and forms a part of
casting. Made of same metal as the casting.
2. External chills: Placed adjacent to mould cavity. Two
types(a)Direct external chill is flush with the mould cavity wall
and comes in direct contact with molten metal.(b)Indirect external
chills does not come in direct contact with the molten metal. They
are rammed and embedded behind the mold cavity wall.
 MOULDING PROCESS
a) Bench molding
• It is carried out in benches of convenient height
• It is used for making small molds
• Both green and dry sand molds can be made by bench
molding
b) Floor molding
• Molding work is carried out on foundry floor
• It is used for making medium and large-sized castings
• Mold has its drag portion in the floor and cope portion
may be rammed in a flask and inverted on the drag.
• Both green and dry sand moulds can be made by floor
molding
c) Pit molding
• Very big castings which cannot be made in flasks are
moulded in pits dug on the floor.
• The mold has its drag part in the pit and a separate
cope is rammed and used above the (pit) drag.
• In pit molding, the molder may enter the drag and
prepare it.
• The sides of the (pit) drag are lined with brick and
the bottom is covered with molding sand .
• The cope (a separate flask) is rammed over the pit
(drag) with pattern in position.
• The mold is dried by means of a stove(heater)
d) Sweep moulding:
• The moulding done by using a sweep pattern, is
called sweep moulding.
• A sweep that can be rotated around an axis is used
for producing a surface of revolution. The casting
produced involves less time and reduced expenses
in making a full pattern.
• Sweep moulding is best suited for large size moulds
which are symmetrical in shape and particularly of
circular sections.
 GATING SYSTEM
• The term gating system refers to all passageways
through which the molten metal passes to enter the
mold cavity.
• A good gating design should ensure proper
distribution of molten metal without excessive
temperature loss, turbulence, gas entrapping and
slags.
• The gating system is composed of
– Pouring cups and basins
– Sprue
– Runner
– Gates
Riser(Feeder head)
• Riser is a source of extra metal which flows from riser to mould cavity to
compensate for liquid shrinkage and solidification shrinkage which takes
place in the casting when it is solidifying.
• Without a riser heavier parts of the casting will have shrinkage defects,
either on the surface or internally.
• Risers are of two types; open riser and blind riser
• Open riser is exposed to atmosphere where as blind riser is closed at its
top
• A riser should be provided close to heaviest portion of casting preferably
on top
• It should be large enough so that its solidification takes place last after
complete solidification of casting
Functions of Risers
• Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage
• Allow mould gases to escape
• Promotes directional solidification
 Pouring and feeding:
• Pouring is an important step, because the behavior of
the liquid metal and its subsequent freezing
determines the soundness of casting.
– It is essential to know the optimum pouring rate and
pouring time for the metal to be cast.
• If the molten metal is poured very slowly, time taken
to fill the mould cavity will become longer,
solidification will start even before the mould is
completely filled.
– This can be restricted by using super heated metal, but in
this case solubility will be a problem.
• If the molten metal is poured very faster, it can erode
• Pouring temperature influences grain size and
crystal structure and is a very important parameter.
– Both low and high pouring temperature create defects in
casting.
• Ladles are used to carry molten from the furnace to
the moulding boxes.
• Ladles should be preheated before pouring metal in
to it.
• Slag and other impurities present in the molten
metal should be removed or avoided from entering
the mould.
CLEANING AND FINISHING EQUIPMENT
• Fettling is the operation of cleaning and finishing of
castings
• It includes:
– (a) removal of cores and surface cleaning of casting(by
using hand tools like hammers, files, wire brush and
machines for hydro blasting, sand blasting and shot
blasting)
– (b) removal of gates, risers, runners, fins and other
unwanted projection from castings(shearing machine,
hand saws, band saws, grinding machines, oxy-acetylene
cutting torch etc. are used for this purpose)
Sandblasting(Abrasive blasting) Process:
• Sandblasting is also known as abrasive blasting.
• Sandblasting is the process of propelling abrasive by
using the pressurized liquid or compressed gas as
propellant.
• It is done under high pressure to smooth a rough
surface, roughen a smooth surface, shape the
surface or to remove surface contaminants.
• Sand used to be the most commonly used material,
but since the lung disease - silicosis is caused by
extended inhalation of the dust created by sand,
other materials are now used in its place.
Shot blasting (Grit blasting):
• Shot blasting is a process of propelling abrasive
media material with centrifugal or mechanical
force.
• Difference between sand blasting and shot blasting:
– Sandblasting process uses compressed air to shoot some
form of abrasive media like sand against the product
being treated. Shot blasting employs centrifugal force
from a mechanical device to propel treatment media
upon the product.