Neurophysiology

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 Introduction
Organization of the Nervous System
1. Central Nervous System-CNS
• The brain + the spinal cord
– The center of integration and control

2. Peripheral Nervous System -PNS

• The nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord
• Consists of:
-31 pairs of Spinal nerves
-12 pairs of Cranial nerves
• Carry info to and from the spinal cord and brain (sensory and
motor).
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 Organization of the NS cont’d….
• PNS Can be divided further into:
– Somatic nervous system (SoNS)
• Voluntary (generally)
• Somatic nerve fibers that conduct impulses from the CNS
to skeletal muscles
– Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
• Involuntary (generally)
• Conducts impulses from the CNS to smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands.

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A Neural Circuitry Organization
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 Nervous tissue

 Principal cell types that make up the NS:

1. Neurons
• Functional, signal conducting cells, possess electrical
excitability.
 Neurons are specialized for:
- Sensory function, Integrates idea, Coordinates muscular
activities
1. Neuroglia
• Supporting cells
- non-excitable cell
- they are 5 to 50 times more numerous.
- Can multiply after maturation.
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 Neuroglia – provides support, nourish, and protect the neurons and
maintain homeostasis in the interstitial fluid that bathes them.

• - are smaller in size than neurons.

•
 Of the six types of neuroglia, astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes,
and ependymal cells are found only in the CNS.

 The remaining two types-Schwann cells and satellite cells are present in
the PNS.
•
•

•
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 Neurons
• Neurons are functional & structural units of the
nervous system.
 A neuron has 3 distinct parts. These are:
Cell body , Dendrites and Axon
 There are different types of neurons but most have
certain structural and functional characteristics:
• Dendrites & Cell body • Axon hillock
(Input Zone) (Trigger Zone)
• Soma • Axon
(Biosynthetic center) (Conducting Zone)
• Axon terminal
(Secretory or output zone)
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 Types of Neurons

Structurally neurons are classified into three classes:

1. Multi polar neurons: usually have several dendrites and one axon
 Most neurons in the brain and spinal cord are of this type.
 Motor in function

2. Bipolar neurons: have one main dendrite and one axon .

 They are found in the retina of the eye, in the inner ear, and in the
olfactory (smell) area of the brain.

3 . Unipolar neurons: have dendrites and one axon that are fused
together to form a continuous process that
emerges from the cell body.
 Sensory in function
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 Functional classification of neurons

There are three classes of neurons:

1. Sensory (afferent) neurons- either contain sensory receptors

at their distal ends (dendrites) or are located just after sensory
receptors that are separate cells.


Most sensory neurons are unipolar in structure.


Conduct impulses from periphery to the center

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–
2. Motor (efferent) neurons - convey action potentials away from
the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands).
–

–
Δ Most motor neurons are multipolar in structure
–

–
3. Interneuron (association neurons) - are mainly located
within the CNS between sensory and motor neurons.
–

–
Δ Inter neurons integrate (process) incoming sensory information from
sensory neurons and then elicit a motor response by activating the
appropriate motor neurons.

–
Δ Most interneurons are multipolar in structure.
–

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 Membrane potentials

• All cells have a voltage difference across their plasma

membrane, it is called membrane potential.

1) Resting membrane potential

• The membrane potential (VM) at rest is called resting
membrane potential (RMP).
• At rest, there are electropositivity out and electronegativity
inside of cell membrane of the neuron.
• The resting membrane potential of the neuron is “-70 mV”.

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 Basic Electrophysiological Terms

Polarization
- a state in which membrane is polarized at rest, negative inside
and positive outside.
Depolarization:
- the membrane potential becomes less negative than the resting
potential (-70 mV), due to the rapid opening of Na+ channel.
Repolarization:
- when the membrane recover (returns) to the resting potential
after depolarization.(due to the slower opening of K+channels
and the closing of Na+ channels )

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 Action Potentials
 An immediate change of the RMP in to depolarization that is
followed by re-establishment of the RMP (re polarization) is
called action potential (nerve impulse).

 Action potential is a rapid, conductive, and reversible change

of the membrane potential after the cell is stimulated.

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Action Potentials

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 Action Potentials

• If VM reaches threshold, Na+ channels

open and Na+ influx , depolarizing the
cell and causing the VM to increase.
- This is the rising phase of an AP

• Eventually, the Na+ channel will have

inactivated and the K+ channels will be
open.
• Now, K+ effluxes and repolarization
occurs.
- This is the falling phase.

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 Conduction of Action Potential

• If an AP is generated at the axon hillock, it will travel all

the way down to the synaptic knob.
• The manner in which it travels depends on whether the
neuron is myelinated or unmyelinated.
 Unmyelinated neurons undergo the Sweeping
/continuous conduction/ of an AP whereas
Myelinated neurons undergo jumping /saltatory conduction/ of
an AP.

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 1. Continuous (Sweeping) Conduction

• Occurs in unmyelinated axons.

• The whole length of the membrane is depolarized (AP occurs

on whole length of the axon membrane)
• Velocity of conduction is slow

• Consumes large amount of energy

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 2. Saltatory (Jumping) Conduction
• Occurs in myelinated axons.
• AP occurs at the axon of nodes of Ranvier.
 Region of concentrated voltage-gated Na channels.
• Velocity of conduction is faster
• Consumes few amount of energy (Economizes ATP)

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 Synapses

 Synapse is a region where communication occurs between two

neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell (muscle cell or
glandular cell).
• The most common types of neuroneuronal junctions is axo-
dendritic junctions

• A presynaptic neuron is a nerve cell that carries a nerve impulse

toward a synapse.
• A postsynaptic cell is the cell that receives a signal.

 Most of the synapses used for signal transmission in the nervous

system of the human being are chemical synapses.
 In these synapses, the first neuron will transmit impulse to another
neuron or to effectors by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters.
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 Mechanism of Chemical Synaptic Transmission

• An AP reaches the presynaptic

axon terminal of the presynaptic
cell and causes V-gated Ca2+
channels to open.

• Ca2+ rushes in, binds to regulatory

proteins & initiates NT release by
exocytosis.

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 Cont’d

• NTs diffuse across the synaptic cleft and then bind to

specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane and
initiate postsynaptic potentials.

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 Importance of CNS
 Integrating and command center of the nervous
system
 It receives incoming sensory signals,
 Interprets these signals, and
 Dictates motor responses based on past experiences,
reflexes, and current conditions.

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 Sensory part of the nervous system
• Most activities of the nervous system are
initiated by sensory experience of exciting
sensory receptors

• Sensory experience can either cause

immediate reaction from the brain, or
memory of the experience.

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 Sensory physiology
• How the stimulus is transduced by sensory
receptors & processed in the brain.

Stimulus
A factor that elicits a sensory impression of a
certain quality.

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 Receptor
 Transducer (a neuron or a specialized cell) that converts a
particular form of energy in the environment into action
potentials in neurons
 Located at sites exposed to their specific stimuli
Types of receptors

o Mechanoreceptors
o Thermoreceptors
o Chemoreceptors
o Nociceptors
o Photoreceptors
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 Sensory pathways

• Are the pathways which carry the impulses from

receptors in different parts of the body to brain.

• Stimulus  sensory receptor  more than one

afferent/sensory neuron cerebral cortex (sensory area)
 perception.

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 Sensory Tracts

• An ascending tract is a sensory tract, which conducts

sensory signals up to the higher brain centers.

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Brainstem

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 Cont’d
• Formed by medulla oblongata, Pons and Midbrain.
• Brainstem contains ascending and descending tracts
between brain and spinal cord.
• It also contains many centers for regulation of vital
functions in the body.
Respiratory Centers
Vasomotor center
Contains Nuclei of CN V, VI,VII, VIII
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 Functions of Brain stem
1. Mediates sensation + motor control of the head, neck,
and face

2. Mediate parasympathetic reflexes

3. Contains ascending + descending pathways that carry
sensory and motor information to other divisions of
the CNS.
4. Reticular formation (regulating alertness and arousal).

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 Thalamus
o Pathway of sensory
information from the
periphery (except olfaction).

o Determines which sensory

information reaches the
neocortex.

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 Physiology of Cerebellum
• Cerebellum is located in the
posterior cranial fossa.
• It is also called little brain.
• Its activity occurs
subconsciously.

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 Function of Cerebellum
• Reception of information from the periphery concerning
the position of the body parts
• Sequence of muscle contractions (generating exactly the
right amount of force, timing).
• Coordination + prediction of movement

• Maintenance of upright posture

• Comparison + integration of information

• What is intended is compared with what has

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 Cerebral cortex
• The highest center of the NS.
• Perceptions of fine sensations + initiation of
voluntary movements.
• 2 hemispheres (rt. + lt.): each cerebral hemisphere: 4
lobes:
o Frontal lobe
o Parietal
o Temporal
o Occipital

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 Cont’d
 Frontal lobe:
 Short-term memory
 Planning future actions
 Control of movement
Parietal lobe:
 Somatic sensation
Occipital lobe: Vision
Temporal lobe: Hearing

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 Motor part of the nervous system
• Motor part of nervous system controls
various bodily activities;
 Contraction of muscles, and secretion of
active chemical substances by exocrine and
endocrine glands.

• Skeletal motor nerve axis of the nervous

system controls skeletal muscle contraction.
• Autonomic nervous system controls smooth
muscles and glands.

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 Descending motor tracts
 The descending tracts are the pathways by which motor
signals are sent from the brain to lower motor neurons
 Descending tracts of spinal cord are of two types:
1. Pyramidal tracts
2. Extra pyramidal tracts.

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 Pyramidal tracts

• Originate in the cerebral cortex, carrying motor fibers

to the spinal cord and brain stem.
• Responsible for the voluntary control of the
musculature of the body and face.

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 Extra pyramidal System
• Descending tracts of spinal cord other than pyramidal
tracts are called extrapyramidal tracts
• It originate in the brainstem, carrying motor fibers to
the spinal cord.
• Responsible for the involuntary and automatic
control of muscle; such as muscle tone, posture and
equilibrium.

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 Autonomic Nervous System
 It is the portion of the nervous system that controls most visceral
functions of the body
 This system helps to control:
o arterial pressure
o gastrointestinal motility
o gastrointestinal secretion
o urinary bladder emptying
o sweating
o body temperature and others
 Some of which are controlled almost entirely and some only
partially by the autonomic nervous system

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 …cont’d
• Can be divided into:
– Sympathetic Nervous System
• “Fight or Flight”
– Parasympathetic
Nervous System
• “Rest and Digest”
• However, there is often
dual innervation, For the
purpose of better control

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Autonomic innervation

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Neuronal organizations of the ANS

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Autonomic control centers located in the brain stem.
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 Sympathetic Division: (Thoracolumbar out flow)
• Originates in lateral horns of T1-T12 and L1-L2 region of spinal
cord
• Components of the Sympathetic neurons
– Cell bodies of preganglionic motor neurons are
located in the thoracic and lumbar part of the spinal
cord
– Preganglionic axons synapse in lateral/collateral
ganglia, which are located near the spinal cord far
away from the organs being innervated
– Contains short preganglionic neurons which are
cholinergic.
– Sympathetic postganglionic axons travel from the
lateral/collateral ganglia to the target organ
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 Functions of the SyNS

• Sympathetic - largely fight or flight response

• Works with adrenal medulla –epinephrine
• Increases metabolic rate
• Increases cardiac output during exercise and excitements
• Generally excitatory to almost all body parts except for the
gastrointestinal tract (GIT).
• Has inhibitory effects on the GIT

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Sympathetic Division

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SyNS. Division
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 Parasympathetic Division: (Craniosacral)
• Originates from cranial and sacral regions.
• Cranial components are part of CN III (Oculomotor), VII (Facial),
IX (Glossopharyngeal), and X (Vagus)
• Sacral components from S2 - S4 segments of the spinal nerves.
Organization of the parasympathetic neurons
1. Cell bodies of preganglionic motor neurons located in parts of
certain nuclei of cranial nerves and in the sacral part of the spinal
cord
2. Preganglionic axons synapse in terminal ganglia which are
located close to or on the organ being innervated
3. Contains long preganglionic neurons
4. Parasympathetic postganglionic axons travel from the terminal
ganglia to the target organ
5. Contains short postganglionic cholinergic neurons
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PsNS. Division
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 Function of PsNS
• Regulation of digestion, defecation and micturition
• Conservation of energy, anabolic, maintains a homeostatic
environment ”resting and digesting" system
• No mass discharge, discrete activities
• There is tonic impulse discharge to the heart
• Parasympathetic neurons in general have inhibitory effect on
almost all body tissues except in the GIT. They have excitatory
effects on the GIT.

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Thank you for your
attention

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