Unit Two

Data Types and Collection

Methods
Specific Contents to be Covered

 Types of Data

 Data Collection Methods

 Dictionary Meaning
• data /"deIt@/ n.
1. facts and statistics used for reference or analysis. Ø
Philosophy things known or assumed as facts, making
the basis of reasoning.
2. the quantities, characters, or symbols on which
operations are performed by a computer.
• ORIGIN : from L., pl. of datum.
• USAGE In Latin, data is the plural of datum &, historically
& in specialized scientific fields, it is also treated as a
plural in English.
• In modern non-scientific use, however, it is often treated
as a mass noun, similar to a word like information, which
cannot normally have a plural and which takes a singular
verb. Sentences such as data was collected over a
number of years are now widely accepted in standard
English.
At the end of this lesson, participants will be able
to:
 Identify common types of data
 Make a distinction among data collection
methods
 Appreciate advantages and disadvantages of
different data collection methods
 Reasonably select appropriate data collection
methods in future carrier
 Types of Data … Cont’d
A datum is any piece of collected information. Two types of data:
1. Primary Data: are those which are collected afresh and for
the first time thus happen to be original in character.
 Usually collected through questionnaires, interviews,
observation, FGD, etc. and thus happen to be original in
character.

2. Secondary Data: are those which have already been collected

by
someone else and which have already been passed through the
statistical process.
 Types of Data … Cont’d
Difference Between Primary Data Secondary Data
Primary Data Secondary Data
Data Real time data Past data
Process Very involved Quick and easy
Source Surveys, observations, Government publications,
experiments, websites, books, journal
questionnaire, articles, internal records etc.
personal interview, etc.
Cost effectiveness Expensive Economical
Collection time Long Short
Specific Always specific to the May or may not be specific to
researcher's needs. the researcher's need.
Available in Crude form Refined form
Accuracy and More Relatively less
Reliability
 Types of Data … Cont’d

I. Quantitative data
 Any data that measure or are associated with a measurement of the
quantity of something.
 They invariably assume numerical values.
 Quantitative data can be further subdivided into two categories.
A. Discrete data which take values in a finite or countable infinite
set of numbers,
 They are often represented by integers, say, 0, 1, 2, etc;

Eg: counts, number of arrivals, or number of successes.

 Types of Data … Cont’d

B. Continuous data which takes values in an interval of

numbers.
 These are also known as scale data, interval data, or
measurement data.
 Often characterized by fractions or decimals: 3.82,
7.0001, etc.
 Eg: Height, weight, length, time, etc.
 Types of Data … Cont’d

II. Qualitative Data

 Any type of data that are not numerical, or do not represent
numerical quantities.
Eg: Subject’s name, gender, race/ethnicity, political party,
socioeconomic status, class rank, driver’s license number,
& social security number.
 Some data look to be quantitative but are not, because they do not
represent numerical quantities and do not obey mathematical rules.
 Eg: a person’s shoe size
 Factors may be Nominal and ordinal.
 Types of Data … Cont’d

Some Advantages of using Primary data:

 The investigator collects data specific to the problem
under study.
 There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected
(for the investigator).
 If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data
during the study period.
 Types of Data … Cont’d
Some Disadvantages of using Primary data (for reluctant/
uninterested investigators):
1. The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data
collection-
 Deciding why, what, how, when to collect
 Getting the data collected (personally or through others)
 Getting funding and dealing with funding agencies
 Ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.)
 Types of Data … Cont’d

2. Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard-

 All desired data is obtained accurately, and in the
format it is required in.
 There is no fake/cooked up data.
 Unnecessary/useless data has not been included.
3. Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in
studies.
Some Advantages
Types of Dataof…
using secondary data:
Cont’d
 The data’s already there- no hassles of data collection
 It is less expensive
 The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality
of
data (“I didn’t do it”)
Some disadvantages of using secondary data:
 The investigator cannot decide what is collected (if specific
data
about something is required, for instance).
 One can only hope that the data is of good quality
 Obtaining additional data (or even clarification) about
something
Data Collection Methods
Brainstorming
 1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)
 The most commonly used method especially in studies relating to
behavioral sciences.
 We all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is
not
scientific observation.
 Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data
collection for the researcher,
 When it serves a formulated research purpose,
 If systematically planned and recorded and
 If subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
 1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)
The main advantage of this method
 Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
 Information obtained under this method relates to what is
currently happening;
 It is not complicated by either the past behavior or future
intentions or attitudes.
1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)

 Is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as

such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the
part of respondents
 Suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents)
who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings
for one reason or the other
1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)

Limitations
 It is an expensive method
 The information provided by this method is very limited
 Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task
While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind things
like:
 What should be observed?
 How the observations should be recorded?
 Or how the accuracy of observation can be ensured?
 1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)

Observation can be Structured or Unstructured

 If observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to
be observed, the observed information is recorded, conditions of
observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation is
standardized, then the observation is structured observation.

 But when observation is to take place without these characteristics

to be thought of in advance, the same is termed as unstructured
observation.
 1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)
 Structured observation:
 Considered appropriate in descriptive studies
 Most likely to be relatively unstructured in an exploratory study
 Careful definition of the units to be observed
 Style of recording the observed information
 Standardized observation and selection of pertinent data for
observation

 Unstructured observation- when the observation lacks the above

characteristics
 1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)
Observation can also be participant or non-participant
 In participant observation the observer observes by making
himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing so
that he can experience what the members of the group experience
 But, when the observer observes as a detached emissary without
any attempt on his part to experience through participation what
others feel, it is non-participant observation. (When the observer is

observing in such a manner that his presence may be unknown to

the people he is observing, such an observation is described as
disguised observation.)
 1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)
Merits of the participant type of observation: The researcher
 Is enabled to record the natural behavior of the group.
 Can even gather information which could not easily be
obtained if he observes in other ways.
 Can even verify the truth of statements made by informants in
the context of a questionnaire or a schedule.
Demerits of this type of observation
 The observer may lose the objectivity to the extent he
participates emotionally;
 The problem of observation-control is not solved;
 It may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience.
 1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)

Observation can also be controlled or uncontrolled

 If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be
termed as uncontrolled observation, but when observation takes
place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving
experimental procedure, the same is then termed controlled
observation.
 In non-controlled observation, no attempt is made to use precision
instruments.
 The major aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous
picture of life and persons.
 1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)
 It has a tendency to supply naturalness and completeness of

behavior, allowing sufficient time for observing it.

 But in controlled observation, we use mechanical (or precision)

instruments as aids to accuracy and standardization.

 Such observation has a tendency to supply formalized data upon
which generalizations can be built with some degree of assurance.
 The main pitfall of non-controlled observation is that of subjective
interpretation.
 1. Observation Method … (Cont’d)

There is also the danger of having the feeling that we know more
about the observed phenomena than we actually do.
 Generally, controlled observation takes place in various experiments
that are carried out in a laboratory or under controlled conditions,
whereas uncontrolled observation is resorted to in case of exploratory
researches.
2. Interview Method
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)
 Involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of
oral-verbal responses.
 Can be done through
I. Face-to-Face interviews,
II. Telephone interviews,
III. MSN messenger interviews,
IV. E-mail interviews.
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)
I. Face-to-face interviews/Personal interviews: Synchronous
Communication of time and place
 Requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions
generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.
 The interviewee may also ask certain questions and the interviewer
responds
 May be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be
indirect oral investigation.
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)
 In the case of direct personal investigation the interviewer has to
be
on the spot and has to collect the information personally from the
sources concerned.
 Suitable for intensive investigations
 In certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to contact
directly the persons concerned and the direct personal investigation
technique may not be used.
 In this case indirect oral investigation is applied
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)
Guidelines for Survey Interviewing
 Appearance demeanor/manner: Interviewers should dress in a
fashion similar to that of the people they will be interviewing
 Familiarity with the questionnaire: The interviewer must study
the questions carefully and must practice reading it aloud
 Following question wording exactly: change in the wording of a
given question may lead to answer “Yes” rather than “No”.
 Recording responses exactly: No attempt should be made to
summarize, paraphrase or correct bad grammar
 Probing for responses: Soliciting a more complete answer to a
question
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)
Advantages of Face-to-face interviews
 Social cues such as voice, intonation, body language etc. of the
interviewee
 No significant time delay between question and answer;
 The answer of the interviewee is more spontaneous, without an
extended reflection.
 Can be tape recorded, of course with the permission of the
interviewee.
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)
 The interviewer has a lot of possibilities to create a good interview
ambience.
 Termination of a Face-to-Face interview is easy, compared to
other
interview methods.
 Clues can be given that the end of the interview is near, for
example by shuffling the papers and turning off the tape recorder.
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)

Taking notes during the interview is important for the interviewer,

even if the interview is tape recorded:

(1) To check if all the questions have been answered,

(2) In case of malfunctioning of the tape recorder, and

 2. Interview Method … (Cont’d)

II. Telephone Interviews: Synchronous Communication of Time,

Asynchronous Communication of Place

Advantages
 Relatively easy access to any area (geographical access), hard to
reach populations, Closed sites such as hospitals religious
communities, prisons, the military, and cults), to dangerous or
politically sensitive sites like in war zones, or sites where diseases
are rife, without needing to grapple with the danger-and the
bureaucracy-of visiting the area (personal safety)
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)
 Good for sensitive accounts that participants might be reluctant to
discuss them face-to-face with an interviewer.
 Saves many and time (regarding transportation and going many
times to get the respondent)
 The interviewer can dress any way
 The interviewer can communicate a lot about themselves over the
phone, however, even though they can’t be seen.
 Allow greater control over data collection if several interviewers
are engaged in the project
 As in face-to-face interviews, the interview can be tape recorded.
2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)

Disadvantages
 Limited to people who have telephones
 May be the proliferation of bogus “surveys”
 For the researcher, the ease with which people can hang up is
another short coming of telephone surveys
 D/t behavior patterns associated with the utilization of the
answering machine could emerge
 May be time consuming
 Reduction of social cues
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)
III. MSN messenger interviews: Synchronous communication of

time, asynchronous communication of place

 It is also possible to interview someone via an instant messaging
/chatting/ service such as MSN Messenger.
 These interviews allow you to talk to people at great distances and
give you the benefit of adapting your questioning based on the
responses you receive.
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)
Advantages of MSN messenger interviews
 Saves costs and time, because the interviewer does not have to
travel to the interviewee.
 Disturbing background noises (e.g. when people are working with

machinery outside the building) are not recorded

 The outcome can directly be downloaded on the computer

Disadvantages of MSN messenger interviews

 Absence of social cues.
 The interviewer has no view on the situation in which the
interviewee is situated.
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)
IV. E-mail interviews: Asynchronous Communication of Time &

Place
 If people are as busy as ever and are increasingly hard to catch, E-

mail is the other option for interviews.

 Email interview allows interview subjects time to respond at their

first opportunity, and the method doesn't require the journalist to

spend all of his free time trying to make contact with the subject.
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)

Advantages of E-mail interviews

 The extended access to participants, compared to FTF interviews

 Disturbing background noises are not recorded.

 E-mail interview can be much cheaper than e.g. a face to face

interview, because there are no travelling costs.

2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)
 Busy interviewees do not have to identify a mutually convenient

time to talk to each other.

 It is possible to interview in a foreign language even if the

interviewer is insufficiently fluent for a face-to-face interview

 The outcome of an e-mail interview can directly be downloaded

on the computer, so there is no transcription time

 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)

Disadvantages of E-mail interviews

 The complete lack of social cues
 May also cost a lot of time. Interviewee might have to wait
sometimes for days or weeks before he/she answers the questions.
(Lack of interest or may forget to reply)
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)

 Data can be collected by listening to individuals, recording,

filming
their responses, or a combination of methods.
 Based on the structure of the interview, there are three most
common types of interviewing:

I. Unstructured interview
II. Semi-structured interview
III. Structured interview
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)

I. Unstructured interview
 Sometimes called as in-depth life history interviews
 Favored approach for life history research.
 The participant is free to talk about what he or she deems important,
with little directional influence from the researcher.
 Can only be used for qualitative research.
 People often assume that this type of interviewing is the easiest.
However, this is not necessarily the case.
 This can be difficult and takes tact, diplomacy and perseverance.
 Also, some people find it very difficult to remain quiet while
another person talks, sometimes for hours on end.
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)

In Unstructured Interview, Researchers:

 Attempts to achieve a holistic understanding of the interviewees’
point of view or situation.
 Have to be able to establish rapport with the participant
 Have to be trusted if someone is to reveal intimate life information.
 Need to remain alert, recognizing important information and
probing for more detail.
 Need to know how to tactfully steer someone back from totally
irrelevant digressions.
 Can produce a great deal of data which can be difficult to analyze.
[Link]-structured
Interview Method …. (Cont’d)
Interviews
 The most common type of interview used in qualitative research.
 To compare & contrast with information gained in other
interviews.
 Guided by flexible schedules (list of questions or topics)
 This is taken to each interview to ensure continuity.
 In some research, the schedule is updated and revised to include
more topics which have arisen as a result of the previous
interview.
 Probing is crucial (using when, who, how, etc. questions)
 It takes more than an hour usually
 2. Interview Method …. (Cont’d)

III. Structured Interviews

 Are used frequently in market research.
 The interviewer asks you a series of questions and ticks boxes with
your response (questionnaires).
 This research method is highly structured – hence the name.
 Are used in quantitative research and can be conducted face-to-
face or over the telephone
 3. Questionnaires
 Questionnaires are set of questions or statements usually used in
surveys and experiments
 There are three basic types
A. Close-ended questionnaires
 Most popular
 Are used to generate statistics in quantitative research.
 As these questionnaires follow a set format, ease of analysis.
 Researcher structured responses
 Greater uniformity of response
 Pre-coded, hence can be directly entered to statistical software
3. Questionnaires … Cont’d

B. Open-ended questionnaires
 Are used in qualitative research although some researchers will
quantify the answers during the analysis stage.
 Does not contain boxes to tick, but a blank section to write
 Data analysis is more complex.
 Fewer questionnaires need to be distributed.
 Self-expressed, (Less uniformity in responses)
 Cannot be directly entered to statistical software, etc; must be post-
coded
 Less popular with researchers
 3. Questionnaires … Cont’d
C. Combination of both
 Many researchers tend to use

 Many questionnaires begin with a series of closed questions, with

boxes to tick or scales to rank, and then finish with a section of

open questions for more detailed response.

 3. Questionnaires … Cont’d
General Guidelines for Writing (Questionnaire Construction) and
Asking Questions
 Choose appropriate question forms
(Questions/statements/open ended/close ended)
 Make items clear (unambiguous)
E.g. What do you think of the infrastructural plan of AACA?
Which plan? be specific.
 Avoid double-barreled questions
E.g. What do you think about the LRT system and its implementation
in Addis Ababa? Separate the 2 questions
3. Questionnaires … Cont’d
 Respondents must be competent to answer
 Questions should be relevant to the subject matter
 Willing to answer
 Short items are best
 Avoid negative items
E.g. Don’t ask “Should not” rather ask “should…”
 3. Questionnaires … Cont’d

 Avoid biased items and terms

 People might agree with influential personalities (Mayor,
Prime Minister, etc.) and tend to disagree with less popular
personalities (ONLF, OLF, Al Qaeda, etc.) in questionnaires
 Hence avoid questions like “do you agree with PM, Mayor,
OLF, etc.” rather ask “What is your opinion….”
 Close-ended items need to be exhaustive
E.g. How old are you? A. less than 15 B. 15-64 C. 65 and above
 Avoid value judgment words in the item
E.g. Do you support the failed transport policy of Addis Ababa
3. Questionnaires … Cont’d
 Questionnaire Should be spread out and uncluttered
 Boxes adequately spaced apart
 Contingency questions should be specified
Questions intended for only some respondents, determined by
their responses to some other question (For eg. If yes.., If no, ..)
 Matrix Questions items should be constructed properly
 Questions that have the same set of answer categories (eg.
likert response categories)
3. Questionnaires … Cont’d
 Ordering items in a questionnaire (The appearance of one
question can affect the answers given to later ones)
 Present uni-polar or one-directional responses
A preamble detailing purpose of the study. (First show the
survey
in hand is a worthy one)
 General instruction detailing how to answer the questions
 Short introduction for sub-sections; (e.g. socio-demographic,
community problem section, etc.)
 Pre-testing the questionnaire
4. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d
 May be called discussion groups or group interviews
 Is a method in which a number of people are brought together and

discuss on certain issue

 Involving 6 to 12 people plus a moderator and sometimes an

assistant to take note;

 More than 12 people will be difficult to manage

 Less than 6 people will be dominated by loudmouths

 8 is an ideal size
 4. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d
To gain insight into the dynamic relationships of attitudes, opinions,

motivations, concerns, and problems related to human activity

 Qualitative research

 Helpful in answering questions of how and why

 Need to be made up of homogenous people (age, gender, place of
residence, etc.); to
 Share similar knowledge
 Control the validity of information
 4. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d

 Each participant may comment, ask questions of other participants,

or respond to comments by others, including the moderator

 Interaction among the respondents is encouraged to stimulate in-

depth discussion of various topics.

 Efficient to collect in-depth information from more people

4. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d
Points to Consider on FGD:
 Help participants to relax
 Introduce the purpose, confidentiality & anonymity
 Negotiate the length of the FGD & ask participants to respect it
 Schedule convenient for the participants.
 The moderator should explain that their opinions on various
subjects are important
 Aware that the task is to learn, not to present a point of view.
 Participants should feel that they are talking with each other in a
natural way.
 3. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d
 Some people might approach you after the discussion to give
you an information that they were not comfortable sharing in
the FGD, take a note of that
Wrapping up:
 Thank participants
 Exchange contact address with participants
 Promise and do give a copy of your report or policy brief
4. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d
Asking questions:
 Start with general and easy questions
 Then move to more personal and sensitive questions
 Keep an eye contact
 Make sure that no one dominates
 You can use list of questions or topics
 However, probing the response of participants is important
 Control digression & break-away conversation
 4. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d
Advantages and Disadvantages of FGD
Advantages
 Can receive a wide range of responses during one meeting
 Participants can ask questions of each other, lessoning impact of
researcher bias.
 Helps people to remember issues they might otherwise have
forgotten.
 Helps participants to overcome inhibitions, especially if they know
other people in the group.
 The group effect is a useful resource in data analysis.
 Participant interaction is useful to analyze
 4. Focus Groups Discussion … Cont’d

Disadvantages
 Some people may be uncomfortable in a group setting & nervous
about speaking in front of others.
 Not everyone may contribute.
 Other people may contaminate an individual’s views.
 Some researchers may find it difficult or intimidating to moderate
a focus group.
 Venues and equipment can be expensive.
 Difficult to extract individual views during the analysis.
5. Secondary Documents

E.H Research Methods & Techniques

12/30/24 71
in Urban Development
 5. Secondary Documents … Cont’d
 The systematic use of published and unpublished materials for
investigation
 It is most widely used method
There are three types of documentary research:
A. Generation of information from previous writers in the field in
question. E.g. term-papers
B. Use of Archival Sources- organizational records (archives)
E.g. letters. Minutes, etc.
C. Reanalysis of data sets- E.g. reanalyzing the census data set, etc.
 5. Secondary Documents … Cont’d
Issues to be considered in documentary research:
 Reliability of data-who, how, why collected
Suitability of the data
Adequacy of the data-in terms of accuracy and sufficiency
Advantages of Documentary research
 Easy to do
 To triangulate the findings and put data into a larger context.
Disadvantages of Documentary research
Accuracy of the information is always questionable particularly
in using newspapers & magazines as a source
 Official statistics are not always exhaustive.
 5. Secondary Documents … Cont’d
 A researcher can face several problems when seeking previously
recorded data. The main of these are :
 Some may be costly to acquire and may be difficult to access.
 Authenticating the sources
 Assessing credibility
 Gauging how representative they are
 Selecting methods to interpret them
 5. Secondary Documents … Cont’d
Here are some examples of documentary data that come from a wide
range of sources:
Personal documents
Oral histories
Commentaries
Diaries
Letters
Autobiographies
Official published documents
State documents and records
Official statistics
Commercial or organizational documents
Mass media outputs
Newspapers and journals
Maps
Drawings, comics and photographs
Thank You