Chapter 2:
Probability & Statistics for Engineers &
Scientists
NINTH EDITION
Ronald E. Walpole
• .
Random Experiment
An experiment that can result in
different outcomes, even though
it is repeated in the same manner
every time, is called a random
experiment.
Sample Space
The set of all possible outcomes of
a random experiment is called the
sample space of the experiment.
Example
E1 = Toss a coin, observe whether it is a Head
(H) or a Tail (T)
1 = {H, T}
Example
E2 = Roll a die, observe the outcome.
2 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
E3 = Toss a fair coin 3 times, observe the
number of heads.
3 = ?
Example
The possible outcomes are :
{HHH,TTT,HHT,HTH,THH,TTH,THT,
HTT}
Number of total possible outcomes
=8
Rolling Dice
Example
Number of outcomes in the sample space, if we toss
a fair coin 5 times?
2 raise to the power 5=
2*2*2*2*2=32 sample points in the
sample space.
Tree diagram
Use a tree diagram to find the sample space for
the gender of three children in a family.
Outcome and a Trial
An outcome is the result of a single trial of a
probability experiment.
A trial means flipping a coin once, rolling one
die once, or the like. When a coin is tossed,
there are two possible outcomes: head or tail.
In the roll of a single die, there are six possible
outcomes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6.
Event
An event is a subset of the sample space of a
random experiment.
An event can be one outcome or more than one
outcome. For example, if a die is rolled and a 6
shows, this result is called an outcome, since it is a
result of a single trial. An event with one outcome is
called a simple event.
The event of getting an odd number when a die is
rolled is called a compound event, since it consists
of three outcomes or three simple events..
Mutually Exclusive Events/
Disjoint Events
Two events A and B are mutually
exclusive, or disjoint, if A ∩ B = φ, that is,
if A and B have no elements in common.
Two or more events that cannot happen
simultaneously.
Mutually exclusive events are events that cannot
happen at the same time. Examples include right and
left-hand turns, even and odd numbers on a die, winning
and losing a game, or running and walking.
Non-mutually exclusive events are events that can
happen at the same time. Examples include driving and
listening to the radio, even numbers and prime numbers
on a die, losing a game and scoring, or running and
sweating.
Non-mutually exclusive events can make calculating
probability more complex.
Probability of an impossible event is zero
and such an event is represented by the
symbol “Fie” or Null Set .
If A= { } then P(A)=0
Pr 0
Exhaustive Events
What are Exhaustive Events in
Probability?
Let us consider the experiment of throwing a die.
Sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Assume that A, B and C are the events associated with this
experiment. Also, let us define these events as:
A be the event of getting a number greater than 3
B be the event of getting a number greater than 2 but less than 5
C be the event of getting a number less than 3
We can write these events as:
A = {4, 5, 6}; B = {3, 4} and C = {1, 2}
We observe that
A ⋃ B ⋃ C = {4, 5, 6} ⋃ {3, 4} ⋃ {1, 2} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} = S
Therefore, A, B, and C are called exhaustive events.
However, the probability of exhaustive events is equal to 1.
Venn Diagram
The relationship between events and the corresponding sample space
can be illustrated graphically by means of Venn diagrams. In a Venn
diagram we let the sample space be a rectangle and represent events
by circles drawn inside the rectangle.
Several results that follow from the foregoing definitions,
which may easily be verified by means of Venn diagrams,
are as follows:
*Equally likely outcomes
*Not Equally likely outcomes