CHAPTER TWO

THE GEOLOGY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

 Introduction

• Geology is:
– an Earth science that
studies
• the evolution of the earth,

• the materials of which it is

made of, and

• the processes acting upon

them.
 Con…

• Much of Geology is concerned with events

that took place in the remote past when no
one was around to witness them and with
features which are far beneath the earth’s
surface where no one can see them.
• A great deal of geological understanding must,
therefore, be obtained by inference
(evidence), using clues from what can be seen
and what can be measured.
 Con…

• There are many such clues not only the rocks and
landforms which can be observed and studied at the
Earth’s surface, but also those provided by indirect
methods such as:
– geophysics (e.g. studying earthquake waves which can
penetrate deep beneath the Earth’s surface),

– geochemistry (analysis of the detailed composition of rocks

which can give clues as to their origin) and

– geochronology (methods for finding the ages of rocks, usually

from the radioactive elements they contain).
 Con…

• The earth’s continents were once bunched up together in to a single huge

continent called Pangaea.

• The large super continent was then split into Gondwanaland where Africa is
a part and Laurasia; and later into smaller fragments over the last million
years. These then drifted apart to form the present arrangement of
continents.
 Con…

• Australian
Climatologist Alfred
Wegener proposed the
hypothesis that the
continents were once
assembled together as
a supercontinent,
called the Continental
drift Theory.
 Con…

Wegener’s principal observations were:

• Fit of the continents

• Match of mountain belts, rock types

• Distribution of fossils

• Paleoclimates
 The Geologic Processes:
Endogenic and Exogenic Forces

• These processes are divided into two major

groups:
1. internal process
2. external process.
 Con…
• The internal processes (endogenic) include volcanic
activity and all the tectonic processes:
 folding,

 faulting,

 orogenesis (mountain building), and

 epeirogenesis (slow rising and sinking of the landmass).

 These processes result in building of structural and

volcanic features like plateaus, rift valleys, Block
Mountains, volcanic mountains, etc.
 Con…

• The external (exogenic) processes are geomorphic

processes. They include:
– weathering,

– mass transfer,

– erosion and

– deposition

• They act upon the volcanic and structural

landforms by modifying, roughening and lowering
them down.
 Con…

• The landmass of Ethiopia, as elsewhere,

is the result of the combined effect of
endogenic and exogenic processes.
 The Geological Time Scale and Age Dating
Techniques

• The geological history is divided in to Eras.

• Each Era is divided into periods.

• The Eras are given names that indicate the

kind of life (visible life) that existed in them.
 Con…

the Paleozoic Era

(ancient life)

age of invertebrates,
 Con…

the Mesozoic Era

(the middle life)

- age of reptiles
 Con…

• the Cenozoic Era

(recent life)

-age of mammals.
 Con…

• These geological time divisions basically differ

from each other in such characteristics as the:
 relative position of land and sea,
the kind of climate and
most important the kind of animal and plant life

• Geological time is difficult to measure

precisely.
 Con…

• The Earth is believed to have been formed

approximately 4.6 billion years ago
• The earliest forms of life were thought to
have originated approximately 3.5 billion
years ago.
• The first major boundary is - the first
appearance of visible life on earth.
 Con…

• The span of time

before visible life
appeared was termed
the Precambrian Era.
• To describe the
geology and history of
life on Earth,
scientists have
developed the
geological time scale.
 Con…

• The geological time scale

measures time on a scale
Eon
involving four main units:
1. An epoch is the smallest Era
unit of time on the scale
and encompasses a period
of millions of years. Period
2. Chronologically, epochs are
clumped together into
larger units called periods. Epoch
3. Periods are combined to
make subdivisions called
Age
Eras.
4. An eon is the largest period
of geological time.
 Con…

• The division of time units in the geological

time scale is usually based on the occurrence
of significant geological events (e.g. mass
extinctions).

• As such, the geological time categories do not

usually consist of a uniform length of time.
Era Period Began (in Million Years) End (my) Major Events (million years ago)

Quaternary 1.6 Present Major glaciers in North America and

Europe (1.5)
Cenozoic

Tertiary 70 1.6 Rocky Mountains (65), individual

continents take shape.

Cretaceous 146 70 Dinosaurs extinct (65), western

interior seaway and marine reptiles
(144 – 65)
Mesozoic

Jurassic 208 146 Pangaea (one land mass) begins to

break up (200)
Triassic 225 208 First mammals and dinosaurs

Permian 290 225 Greatest extinction on Earth (245)

Pennsylvanian 322 290 First reptiles

Mississippian 362 322 Coal-forming forests
Paleozoic

Devonian 408 362 First land animals and first forests

(408)
Silurian 439 408 Life invades land
Ordovician 510 439 First fish appeared
Cambria 600 510 Great diversity of marine
invertebrates
Proterozoic 2,500 600 Marine fossil invertebrates (600)
Precambrian

Archean 4,500 2,500 Earliest fossils recorded (3,500),

earliest rock formation (4,000)
 Age Dating Techniques
• There are two techniques of knowing the age
of rocks:
1. Relative age dating

 uses geological evidence to assign

comparative ages of fossils.
we can use two ways to know the relative
age of a rock:
1. to look at any fossils the rock may contain
 Con…

2. to use the "What is on top of the older rocks?"

 Con…

2. Absolute Age Dating

• Also known as Radiometric techniques

• This technique was developed with discovery of

radioactivity in 1896 (by Antoine Henri Becquerel but
coined the term by Marie Curie and her husband Pierre)
• Radioactive elements such as uranium (U) and thorium (Th)
decay naturally to form different elements or isotopes of
the same element.

• Every radioactive element has its own half-life.

– Atomic Spectroscopy
 Con…

Two of the major techniques include:

1. Carbon-14 Technique:
– Upon the organism’s death,

– carbon-14 begins to disintegrate at a known rate,

and

– no further replacement of carbon from

atmospheric carbon dioxide can take place.

– Carbon-14 has half-life of 5730 years.

 Con…

2. Potassium-Argon
Technique:
• The decay is widely used for
dating rocks.

• Geologists are able to date Micas Hornblendes

entire rock samples in this

way, because potassium-40
is abundant in micas,
feldspars, and hornblendes. Feldspars
 Con…

• Leakage of argon is a problem if the rock has

been exposed to temperatures above 125° C
(257° F), because the age of the rock will then
reflect the last episode of heating rather than
the time of original rock formation.
 Geological Processes and the Resulting Landforms of Ethiopia
and the Horn
1. The Precambrian Era Geologic Processes (4.5
billion - 600 million years ago)
It covers 5/6th of the Earth’s history
Due to its remoteness in time and the absence of
well-preserved fossils, our knowledge of the
events is limited.
Nevertheless, some general description of the
main geologic processes can be made.
 Con…

• The major geologic event of the Precambrian Era

was Orogenesis.
– intense folding
– accompanied by intrusive igneous activity
– The result was the formation of huge mountain ranges

• In between the orogenic periods and after the last

orogenesis, there were long periods of
denudation, which finally reduced these
mountains to near-level (peneplained) rock
surfaces
 Con…
• This “leveled” surface was later (in the Mesozoic
and Cenozoic Eras) covered by younger rock
formations.
• Therefore, in most parts of Ethiopia rocks
belonging to this Era are found beneath all other
rocks, forming the basement rocks.
• Since, they had been subjected to pressure and
heat from overlying weight, earth movements
(folding, orogenesis) and to intrusive igneous
activity; the original rocks (both sedimentary
and igneous) were altered into metamorphic
rocks of varying stages of metamorphism.
 Con…
• Since these same processes have allowed
mineralization and crystal formation, the rocks
are also collectively described as crystalline
rocks.
• The Precambrian rocks are overlaid by recent
rock formations.
 Con…

• However, as surface rocks covering 25% of the

land mass of the country; they are found
exposed in the following areas:
A. In the northern part: Western lowlands, parts of
northern and central Tigray.
B. In the western Part: Gambella, Benishangul-
Gumuz (Metekel and Asossa), western Gojjam,
western Wellega, Illuababora, and Abay gorge.
C. In the southern Part: Guji, southern Omo, and
parts of southern Bale and Borena.
D. In the eastern part: Eastern Hararghe.
 2. The Paleozoic Era Geologic Processes (600million -
225 million years ago)

• lasted for about 375 million years

• The major geological process of this Era was

denudation
• The gigantic mountains that were formed by
the Precambrian orogeny were subjected to
intense and prolonged denudation
 Con…
• At the end, the once gigantic mountain ranges
were reduced to a “peneplained” surface.
• Undulating plain with some residual features
(inselbergs) here and there was formed.
• The sediments were transported southward
and eastward to form continental (in Africa)
and marine deposits, respectively.
• Because of the limited deposition within
Ethiopia, rocks belonging to this Era are rare
in the country.
3. The Mesozoic Era Geologic Processes (225-70
million years ago)
• lasted for about 155 million years
• It was an Era of alternate slows sinking and
rising (epeirogenesis) of the landmass
• This process affected the whole present-day
Horn of Africa and Arabian landmass
• At the same time the land was tilted eastward
and therefore lower in the southeast and
higher in the northwest
Th
el
an
dw
as
til
te
de
as
tw
ar
d
 Con…

• The subsidence of the land began about 225

million years ago
• As the land sank slowly the sea invaded it
starting from Somalia and Ogaden and slowly
spreading northwestward.
• This was in late Triassic and continued up to
Jurassic period.
 Con…

• As the shallow sea spread towards the land,

sands were deposited over the peneplained
Precambrian rock surface.
• As the depth of the sea increased, mud
(shale), gypsum and later lime were
deposited.
• The latter is associated with the flourishing of
marine life and decaying and precipitating of
their remains, as the sea stayed long. Hence,
Mesozoic rocks are considered to have the
greatest potential for oil and gas deposits.
 Con…
• Through time, compression by the overlying
rocks and by cementing minerals, the sands
and lime were compacted to form sandstone
and limestone layers respectively.
• These are known as the Adigrat sand stone and
Hintalo limestone layers.
• They are named after place names in Tigray
where they might have been first identified.
Adigrat sandstone Hintalo limestone
 Con…

• By the end of the Mesozoic Era, when the

land emerged out of the sea, three major
sedimentary formations were laid and formed
upon the Precambrian rock surface:
– the Adigrat or lower sandstone,
– Hintalo limestone and
– Upper Sandstone.
 Con…

• The Mesozoic sedimentary rocks cover 25% of the

land mass of the country.
• Due to the tilting of the landmass during the
transgression and regression of the sea, and due
to the direction of the invading and retreating sea,
the age and thickness of the Sandstone layers vary
in a Southeast - Northwest direction.
• The Adigrat sandstone is older and thicker in the
southeast and progressively decreases in age and
thickness northwestward. The Upper sandstone,
on the other hand, is thicker and younger (Upper
Cretaceous) in the Southeast, while in the
Northwest it is older and thinner.
 A.
S.S
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S.S hic as
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th old nes in a
in e r s ge
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S.
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 Con…

• The transgressing sea and Mesozoic sediments nearly

covered the whole of Ethiopia
• The northwestern limit was as far as central Tigray, and
western slopes of Western highlands.
• In most parts of Ethiopia, the Mesozoic rocks are overlaid by
the Cenozoic rocks.
• As surface rocks, these old marine sediments are extensively
found in the Southeast lowlands.
• Other exposures include central Tigray, and along the gorges
of Abay and Wabishebelle rivers
 4. The Cenozoic Era Geologic Processes
(70million years ago - Present)

• the most recent of the geologic Eras

• The tectonic and volcanic activities have an
important effect in the making of the present-
day landmass of Ethiopia and the Horn of
Africa.
 Con…

• The land was subjected to two major geologic

events and other geologic processes of lesser
magnitude but still important.
• These geologic activities are:
– Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and
outpouring of huge quantity of lava.
– Formation of the Rift Valley.
– Quaternary volcanism and deposition
 Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and
outpouring of lava flood

• The uplifting of the whole of the Arabo-

Ethiopian landmass is a continuation of the
slow rise that began in the Upper Jurassic and
Cretaceous periods.
• This huge uplift continued to the Paleocene
and Oligocene epoch of the Tertiary period.
• Where the uplifting was of greater
magnitude, the land was pushed up to a
maximum height of 2,000 m.a.s.l.
 Con…

• The whole of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass

was pushed up in blocks as one mass.
• The greatest uplift was in central Ethiopia.
 Con…
• This immense tectonic force also fractured the
crust at many places.
• Huge quantity of lava came out through these
fractures.
• The out pouring of this flood of basalt spread
widely and extensively and covered a large part
of the Mesozoic sedimentary layer to form the
Ethiopian plateau surface (more than 1000
m.a.s.l) and also the floor of the present-day
Rift Valley.
• At that time the Rift Valley was not yet formed.
 Con…

• Where the lava comes out through vents,

huge volcanic rocks were piled up to form
many and huge Volcanic Mountains’ towering
the flat basaltic plateau.
• This volcanic material is known as Trappean
lava or Trap Series lava.
 The Formation of the Rift Valley
• The formation of the Rift Valley is said to be
related with the theory of plate tectonics.
• According to the theory, the Rift Valley may be
lying on the Earth’s crust below which lateral
movement of the crust in opposite directions
producing tensional forces that caused parallel
fractures or faults on the sides of the up-
arched swell.
• As the tension widened the fractures, the
central part of the landmass collapsed to form
an extensive structural depression known as
the Rift Valley.
 Con…

• The Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden were

connected as a result of the rifting and faulting
of the land bridge that separated them.
 Con…

• At the same period (Pliocene), the Afar

depression (including the Gulf of Zula) was
down-faulted allowing the Red Sea water to
penetrate far inside.
• Reversed tilting and volcanic activity, later
(Pleistocene – Quaternary period) blocked the
connection and isolated the extension of the
sea, allowing much of the water to evaporate.
• As a result, thick saline materials accumulated.
During the same period, the area between the
Danakil Depression and the Red Sea was
uplifted to form the Afar Block Mountains.
 The Spatial Extent of the Rift Valley

• The Ethiopian Rift Valley is part of the Great East

African Rift system that extends from Palestine-
Jordan in the north to Malawi-Mozambique in
the south, for a distance of about 7,200 km.
• 5,600 km is in Africa

• 1,700 km in Eritrea and Ethiopia.

• On land, the widest part of the Rift Valley is the

Afar Triangle (200-300 km).
 Con…

• The formation of the Gulf of Aden and the

separation of the Arabian Peninsula from the Horn
of Africa also took place during the Tertiary period.
• The Rift Valley region of Ethiopian is the most
unstable part of the country.
• There are numerous hot springs, fumorales, active
volcanoes, geysers, and frequent earthquakes.
Active Volcano
Geyser
Fumarole
 Con…

 The formation of the Rift Valley has the

following structural (physiographic) effects:
– It divides the Ethiopian Plateau into two.

– It separates the Arabian landmass from African

landmass.
– It causes the formation of the Dead Sea, Red Sea
and the Gulf of Aden troughs.
– It creates basins and fault depressions on which the
Rift Valley lakes are formed.
Quaternary Volcanic Eruptions and Depositions
• Recent volcanic activities
• Occurred in the Pliocene-Pleistocene Epochs
• This is a continuation of the tectonic and
volcanic processes that earlier affected the Rift
Valley formation
• It occurred in the form of renewed
rifting/faulting and more volcanism.
• This activity was generally limited to the floor
of the Rift Valley and the region south of Lake
Tana, where the lava covers an area of more
than 3,000km2.
 Con…

• Aden volcanics and recent faulting are more

extensively developed in the Afar region.
• Because of their recent occurrence, the Aden
volcanics have relatively well-preserved and
visible morphological features.
 Con…
 The basic volcanic features of the Aden series
include the following:
Numerous and freshly preserved volcanic cones,
many of which have explosive craters. Some of these
are active Dubi, Erta Ale, Afrera [Link] these, Erta Ale
is the most active volcano in Ethiopia.
Volcanic hills and mountains, some of which are semi-
dormant (Fantale, Boseti-Gouda near Adama, Aletu
north of Lake Ziway, Chebbi north of Lake Hawassa
etc.).
Extensive lava fields and lava sheets some of which
are very recent.
Lava ridges (a log narrow hilltop)
Thermal springs, fumaroles etc.
 Quaternary Deposition
• the Earth experienced a marked climatic
change, where warmer and dry periods were
alternating with cooler and wet periods.
• This was the time of the last:-
– ‘’Ice Age’’ in the middle and high latitude areas
– the time of the ‘‘Pluvial Rains’’ in Africa.
• The heavy Pluvial Rains eroded the Ethiopian
plateau and the eroded materials were
deposited in the Rift Valley lakes.
 Con…

• The excessive rain resulted in an excessive

surface flow; rivers were many and large.
• They carried a lot of water and sediments.
• Lake and marshy areas became numerous and
deep.
• Many were enlarged and covered much area
and even merged together. For example,
Ziway-Langano-Shalla; Hawasa-Shallo; Chamo-
Abaya; and Lake Abe and the nearby smaller
lakes and marsh basins formed huge lakes.
 Con…

• After the ‘‘Pluvial Rains’’, the Earth’s climate

became warmer and drier.
• Thus, it increased the rate of evaporation that
diminished the sizes of the lakes.
• Today, there are lacustrine deposits (sedimentary
rock formations which formed in the bottom
of ancient lakes) of continental origin around many
of the Ethiopian lakes, river valleys and lowlands.
 Con…

According to the place and manner of

deposition and depositing agents these
deposits are divided as follow.
A. Lacustrine deposits: Deposits on former
lakebeds, and swampy depressions.
B. Fluvial deposits: Deposits on the banks of rivers,
flood plains both in plateau, foothills etc.
C. Glacio-fluvial deposits and erosional features:
These are occurred on high mountains, such as
Bale and Kaka Mountains.
D. Aeolian deposits: Are wind blown deposits.
E. Coastal and marine deposits: Deposits on sea
invaded and sea-covered places.
 Con…

• The quaternary deposits are mainly found in the

Rift Valley (Afar and Lakes Region), Baro lowlands,
southern Borena, and parts of northwestern low
lands.
• Generally, the Cenozoic rocks cover 50% of the land
mass of the country.
• These include Highland Tertiary volcanics (basalts),
Tertiary as well as Quaternary volcanics, and
sediments of the rift valley.
Rock and Mineral Resources of Ethiopia

Reading Assignment
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