Argument Analysis
An argument is a set of
assertions, one of which is
intended to follow from or be
supported by the other(s).
Since the pursuit of happiness
requires health and knowledge,
and the pursuit of happiness is a
Constitutional right, access to
health care and education is a
constitutional right.
Identifying Arguments
A passage Every argument
contains an contains both a
argument when factual claim (or
there is an claims, the
attempt to premises) and an
establish that a inferential claim
claim is true by (a claim about
offering reasons what the facts
or evidence for imply, the
its truth. conclusion).
Argument or non-argument?
The fool has said in his heart,
there is no God. (Psalms 14.1)
If God does not exist,
everything is permitted.
(Ivan Karamazov)
The house burned down
because the Halogen bulb
was touching the drapes.
You should support the
Argument Analysis
Premises: The Since hiring a
claims that offer public relations
reasons or firm costs
evidence, facts thousands of
appealed to for dollars that could
support. be used for
Conclusion: The charitable
claim that the causes, it
premises are follows that the
intended to Catholic Church
establish. should not hire a
public relations
Signal Words
Conclusion Premise signals:
Signals: Since; for;
Therefore; so; because;
hence; thus; inasmuch as;
consequently; it etc.
follows that; Since spanking
accordingly; etc. teaches children
Pedophiles can’t to use violence
be rehabilitated, to resolve
therefore, they conflict, parents
should not be should not spank
released from their children.
Specific Premise Signals
Numbering devices: In opposing prayer in
first, in the second public schools, I am
place, thirdly, etc. not deserting my
Cumulative God. On the
contrary, it is
devices:
possible I am thus
furthermore,
serving my God, who
moreover, in I believe wants his
addition, also, etc. children to pray to
Contrastive him of their own
devices: however; freewill and not
nevertheless, on because they are
the contrary, etc. forced. (P. Walker)
Arguments without signals
In arguments without signal words, the
inferential claim is implicit.
It is not obvious that one must be
capable of being a moral agent before
one can be considered an object of
moral concern. We certainly consider
children and the insane to fall within
the scope of moral concern even
though we do not hold them
responsible or consider them to be
moral agents. (B.E. Rollin)
Argument or non-argument?
Neither a borrower nor lender be.
For loan oft loses both itself and
friend, and borrowing dulls the
edge of husbandry.
(Shakespeare)
Lying is not only saying what is
not true. It is also and especially
saying more than is true, and, as
far as the human heart is
concerned, saying more than one
feels. (Albert Camus)
Argument?
A person never Check it out!
becomes truly self
reliant. Even
though he deals
effectively with
things, he is
necessarily
dependent upon
those who taught
him so. They have
selected what he is
dependent upon….
(B.F. Skinner)
Arguments?
When a person decides to
Just because one engage officers in a
says he has a pursuit, refuses police
orders to end the threat
weapon... it still they are posing to the
does not give the safety of officers and the
public, tells the police that
officers the right they have a gun, exits a
to use deadly vehicle and takes an
aggressive shooting
force unless they stance, extends their arms
can reasonably out and points an
unknown object at the
assume that officers, they are
subjecting themselves to
deadly force is the consequences of their
being used upon actions, which may include
being shot." Tyler Izen
them." Jeffrey M.
Incompletely Stated Arguments
Sometimes a premise or
conclusion is assumed without
being explicitly stated.
Here is a single conditional
statement that assumes a premise
and a conclusion: If you aren’t willing
to steal to get into Harvard, then you
should not be willing to cheat to get
in.
If you tell her he is having an affair,
she may end up blaming you, and you
Unexpressed Premises
Carlos won’t I should spend
become a great more time
golfer, he studying, since it
focuses too is either that or
much on prepare myself
technique. to accept failure.
You shouldn’t Cheating is
use immoral immoral because
means to get the you don’t want
things you want to live in a
in life. It may society of
come back to cheaters.
Premise Support
Sometimes an argument contains
a sub-argument to support a
premise.
Capital punishment should be
used only if there is no
alternative means of protecting
society. But life without the
possibility of parole is an
alternative. Keeping
murderers locked securely
away for life protects society
Casting Arguments
A method of It is raining. You
diagramming are sick. You
arguments to hate Yanni. So,
exhibit their you should not
logical structure. go to the
Premises may concert.
provide It is raining and
independent or the concert is
interdependent outdoors, so it
support for the will probably be
conclusion. canceled.
Casting Technique
Bracket each assertion.
Number each assertion.
Express the relationships
between the assertions in a tree
diagram, with conclusion on top.
[Ifyou cheat on the exam you have
sacrificed character for career.] (1) [You
should not sacrifice character for
career.] (2) [So, you should not cheat
on the exam.] (3)
Casting Example
[The feds raised interest rates] (1)
[This means that credit card rates
and mortgage rates will
increase.] (2) [We can barely pay
our bills as it is.] (3) You’d better
1 supports 2
find another job, dear.] 2 and 3 together
4
are needed to
support 4
2 3
1
Casting example 2
[There is no
doubt that
humans 3
commonly
hallucinate.] (1) 1
[There’s 2
considerable
doubt about
whether aliens 1 and 2 together support
exist, abduct, or 3
molest us.] (2) [So
reports of alien
Argument Casting
[The elusive Jesus is a standard feature in
the appearance stories] 1 [Jesus is elusive] 2
[because he was not flesh and blood,] 3 [he
was not restricted by space,] 4 [and his
appearances took place over an extended
period.] 5 [However, as time passed and the
tradition grew, the reported appearances
become more palpable, more corporeal.] 6
[They gradually lose their luminous quality
and take on aspects of a resuscitated
corpse.] 7 [For these reasons, the stories of
the appearances need to be examined
closely for clues to their history and
function.] 8 (Robert Funk)
Cast of Funk’s Argument
1 6
2
7
3
4 5
Cast this!
Since murderers rarely consider the
possibility of getting caught, the
threat of capital punishment does not
deter them. Since justice requires
only that the punishment fit the crime,
not that it take a specific form, capital
punishment is not required by justice.
And, since mandatory appeals are
more costly than a life sentence,
capital punishment does not save
money. Capital punishment,
therefore, is bad public policy.
Cast the Argument
The claim that the effectiveness
of prayer in medical treatment is
evidence of supernatural
intervention is dubious. Quiet
meditation calms the patient.
The belief that others care about
the patient’s welfare may also
reduce stress. Developing a
positive, hopeful outlook
improves prognosis. None of
these psychological benefits of