BUS 299 Consumer Behaviour

Lecture 3

Consumer needs and motivation (Sciffman et al Ch. 3 )

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 Lecture summary

• To understand the types of human needs and motives

and the meaning of goals.
• To understand the dynamics of motivation, arousal of
needs, setting of goals, and interrelationship between
needs and goals.

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 What is motivation?
• Motivation is defined as the driving force
within individuals that impels them to action.

This driving force is produced by a state of

tension that exists as the result of an
unfulfilled need.

Individuals strive both consciously and

subconsciously to reduce the tension they feel
by addressing the need.
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 Model of the motivation process

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 Needs
• Every individual has needs.
• Needs underlie all human actions.
• A need becomes a motive when it is aroused to a
sufficient level of intensity.

• Two types of needs are:

Innate or biogenic (primary) Acquired or psychogenic

(secondary)
Needs that sustain life, such Needs we learn in response to
as food, water, shelter etc. our culture, such as prestige,
affection and learning

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 Goals

• Goals are the sought after results of motivated

behaviour.
• Can be considered to be internal representations
of desired states.
• All behaviour is goal oriented.
• Marketers are concerned with consumers’
product-specific goals:
• That is, the branded products that they select to
fulfil their needs.
• Needs and goals are interdependent.

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 Selection of goals

Personal Physical capacity

experiences

Goal
Selection

Accessibility in
Cultural values physical and social
and norms environment

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 Interdependence of needs and goals
• Needs and goals are interdependent.

• Needs cannot exist without goals.

• Can sometimes be difficult to identify needs:

• physiological needs are generally easily identified –
hungry, thirsty, cold, hot
• psychological needs are not generally easy to
identify –
self-esteem, status, social.

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 Positive and negative motivation

• Motivation can be positive or

negative in direction.
Positive goal Negative goal
Referred to as an Referred to as an
approach object avoidance object
– One consumer may join a
gym in order to get fit
(an approach object).
– Whereas another consumer
may join a gym to stop
getting fat (an avoidance
object).
Need motivation? Nike

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 Rational versus emotional motives

• Considered to be two
types of motives:
• Rational – consumers
select goals based upon
objective criteria.

• Emotional – consumers
select based upon
personal or subjective
criteria.

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 Motivation is a dynamic construct: needs
and goals are ever changing

Needs are never fully New needs emerge as old

satisfied needs are satisfied

Substitute goals may be

Success and failure influence pursued
goals (if another goal is
unattainable)

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 Frustration
• Failure to achieve a goal often results in feelings of
frustration.

• People often mentally redefine the frustrating

situation in order to protect their self-image.

• People adopt defence mechanisms to protect their

egos from feelings of failure when they don’t attain
their goals.

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 Defence mechanisms
Rationalisation
Aggression Regression
Inventing plausible
To protect self Displaying childish
reason for not
esteem behaviour
attaining goal

Withdrawal Daydreaming
Projection
Withdrawing from Fantasising to
Projecting blame for
situation achieve imaginary
failure on others
gratification

Identification Repression Escapism

Identifying with other Repressing the Seek to live out a
people or situations unsatisfied need fantasy

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 Needs and goals vary among
individuals
• It is not possible to accurately infer motives from
behaviour.

• Different needs may be met through selection of the

same goals.
• OR
• Same needs, through different goals.

• Hybrid Yaris

• Prius Hybrid

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 Arousal of motives

Physiological Emotional

Arousal

Cognitive Environmental

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 Hierarchy of needs

• Abraham Maslow formulated a theory of human

motivation based on a universal hierarchy of needs in
1943.
• He identified five basic levels of needs.
• There is some overlap between levels, so that no need
is ever completely satisfied.
• His theory suggests that we seek to satisfy lower needs
first.
• As lower level needs are satisfied, higher level needs
emerge.

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 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

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 An evaluation of Maslow’s needs
hierarchy
• Has been widely accepted in social science disciplines.

• Criticisms are that the concepts are too general and it

can’t be tested empirically.

• However can be a useful tool for understanding

consumer motivations as consumer goods often serve
to satisfy a need level.

• Offers a framework for developing advertising appeals

on a need level and product positioning.

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 Marketing applications of the needs
hierarchy
• Segmentation applications:
– used as a basis for segmentation strategies in advertising
campaigns
– e.g. soft drink ads targeting the youth market and stressing
social appeal by showing a group of young people having
and sharing good times.
• Positioning applications:
– determining how the product should be perceived by the
target market
– the key is to find an unsatisfied need (niche) that is not being
used by a competitor
– e.g. Volvo promoting the safety appeals of their vehicles.

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 The measurement of motives
• Motives are hypothetical constructs making them
difficult to identify and measure.

• Additionally, consumers are not always aware of

motives or are unwilling to disclose them.

• Measurement is usually a combination of

observation, self-reports and projective
techniques.

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 Summary

• Definition of motivation
• A model of the motivation process
• Use of positive and negative motivation
• How consumers deal with frustration
• How motives are aroused and measured
• Development of needs models

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 BUS 299 Consumer Behaviour

Lecture 3

Personality and self-concept (Sciffman et al Ch. 4 )

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 Lecture summary
• To understand how personality reflects consumers’
inner differences.
• To understand how Freudian, neo-Freudian and trait
theories each explain the influence of personality on
consumers’ attitudes and behaviour.
• To understand how personality reflects consumers’
responses to product and marketing messages.
• To understand how the products and services that
consumers use enhance their self-images.
• To understand how marketers seek to create brand
personality-like traits.

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 What is personality?

Personality is the unique dynamic

organisation of characteristics of a particular
person, physical and psychological, which
influence behaviour and responses to the
social and physical environment. Of these
characteristics, some will be entirely unique
to the specific person and some will be
shared with others.
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 The nature of personality
• In the study of personality, three properties are important:

Personality reflects individual differences

• No two people are exactly alike, but many will be similar in

terms of a single personality characteristic.

Personality is consistent and enduring

• A consistent pattern of behaviour should endure over time.

Personality can change

• Personality may alter due to major life events, and by the

gradual maturing process.

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 Theories of personality
These are three streams of research and theoretical development
that have contributed to our understanding of personality and its
application in marketing:

Neo-
Freudian
Freudian
theory
theory

Trait theory

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 Freudian theory
• Based on Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of
personality.
• Built on the premise that unconscious needs are at the
heart of human motivation and personality.
• Freud believed human personality contained three
interacting systems:
– The id - warehouse of primitive and impulsive drives, operates
on the pleasure principle
– The superego - individual expression of moral and ethical codes
of conduct
– The ego - individual’s conscious control, attempts to balance the
id and the superego.

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 Interrelationships between the id,
superego and ego

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 Neo-Freudian personality theory

• Neo-Freudians believe social relationships are

fundamental to the formation and development of
personality.
– Alfred Adler viewed humans as seeking to obtain rational goals
(‘style of life’) and striving for superiority.
– Harry Stack Sullivan stressed people continuously attempt to
establish significant and rewarding relationships with others by
reducing tension, such as anxiety.
– Karen Horney also focused on anxiety, classifying individuals
into three groups:
• compliant individuals
• aggressive individuals
• detached individuals.

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 Trait theory
• A trait is any distinguishing, relatively enduring
way in which each individual differs from
another.
• Trait theory focuses on quantitative
measurements of personality.
• They describe personality as a combination of
particular traits.
• Trait theorists use personality tests (or
inventories) to identify differences in traits.
• This approach assumes people have many
dimensions to their personality.
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 The ‘Big Five’ model of personality
Neuroticism
• tendency to fear, sadness and embarrassment

Extroversion
• tendency to interact with the world

Openness to experience
• tendency to seek variety and novel ideas

Agreeableness
• tendency to move towards people

Conscientiousness
• tendency to control impulses and pursue goals

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 The five-factor theory of personality

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The ‘Big Five’ and single-trait personality
tests

•Marketers use the ‘Big Five’ test to create products to

appeal to us.
•Pepsi – Conscientiousness
•Red Bull - Openness

• Single-trait personality tests are increasingly being developed to

measure one trait of consumers.
• Includes many types, such as: romanticism, self-monitoring,
consumer ethnocentrism.

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 Personality and consumer behaviour
• This section examines specific personality traits that
influence behaviours, such as:
– consumer innovativeness, dogmatism and social character
– need for uniqueness
– consumer susceptibility to interpersonal influence
– optimum stimulation level
– variety seeking
– cognitive personality factors
– fixated and compulsive consumers
– consumer ethnocentrism.

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 Consumer innovativeness
• The success of new products often depends on
adoption of the product by innovators.

• Researchers have developed measurement scales

to assess the level of consumer innovativeness.

• The questionnaires collect responses to statements

such as:
– ‘I am usually among the last of my friends to buy a new
product.’
– ‘Compared with my friends, I own many of this type of
product.’

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 Consumer dogmatism
• The degree of rigidity people display towards
unfamiliar information or towards information
contrary to their beliefs.
• Consumers who are low in dogmatism are
considered open-minded (and more innovative).
• Consumers high in dogmatism (close-minded)
are more likely to choose established products.
They will also be responsive to ads that contain
an authoritative appeal (ads employing experts
and celebrities).

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 Consumer social character
• Social character is a trait that ranges on a continuum from
inner-directness to outer-directness.

• Inner-directed consumers rely on their inner values in

evaluating new products and are likely to be innovators.

• Outer-directed consumers look to others for direction and

are followers.

• These two types of individuals are likely to be attracted to

different styles of promotional messages.

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 Need for uniqueness (NFU)
• Some people seek to be unique.
• These people are unconcerned about criticism from
others.

• Researchers have developed an inventory to

identify NFU. Here are some sample items from this
scale:
– ‘When products or brands become extremely popular, I
lose interest in them.’
– ‘I avoid brands that are purchased by the average
consumer.’
– ‘I like to create a style that is all my own.’

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 Consumer susceptibility to interpersonal influence
(CSII)

• Defined as the need to enhance one’s image in the opinions

of others.
• These consumers have a willingness to conform to the
expectations of others and gather information by observing
others.
• Studies have shown those high in CSII use specific brands
to either fit into their social groups or stand out.
• By identifying CSII, a marketer can create persuasive
communications that identify the product or brand’s value in
helping the individual fit into his/her social group.

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 Optimum stimulation level

High optimal stimulation level Low optimal stimulation level

Willing to take more risks and try May seek relaxation and stress
new products, services and relief.
retailers.
May feel bored by their current
lifestyle and seek out exciting
services and activities, such as
a holiday and entertainment.

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 Variety seeking
Exploratory purchase behaviour

• Switching brands just to experience new (and possibly better) alternatives.

Vicarious exploration

• Gaining information and then contemplating (or daydreaming about) the

alternative.

Use-innovativeness

• Using a product in a new or novel way.

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 Cognitive personality factors –
visualisers versus verbalisers

Verb
aliser
Visua
s:
lisers
Thos
:
e
Thos
who
e
prefe
who
r
prefe
writte
r
n or
visual
verba
infor
l
matio
infor
n.
matio
n.

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 Need for cognition

• An individual’s tendency to desire, engage in and enjoy

effortful cognition.
High need for
Low need for
cognition
cognition
More responsive to
Rely on background or
ads rich in product-
peripheral aspects of
related information or
an ad
description

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 Locus of control

Internal locus of control External locus of control

• Individuals believe they can • Individuals believe that

control outcomes by their own external factors, such as luck
actions and personal abilities. and chance, control their
destiny.
• Consumers with an internal
locus of control are more likely • Consumers with an external
to engage in complex locus of control rely on past
information search. experiences to guide them.

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 Self-monitoring
• Some people are more aware of external
environmental cues and will adjust their behaviour to
be more socially appropriate.

• High self-monitors are preoccupied with what other

people think of their appearance and their actions.

• Low self-monitors prefer functionality over style in

their product choices.

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 Uncertainty orientation

• Uncertainty-oriented
• Those who seek out new
information, situations and Typical items used to
ideas. measure UO are:
– ‘I believe it is important for
us to challenge our beliefs.’
– ‘If I don’t understand
• Certainty-oriented something, I find out about
• Those who prefer stability it.’
and avoid new information
and situations.

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 Fixated and compulsive buying and
consumption
Fixated consumption Compulsive consumption
behaviour: behaviour:
• within realm of socially • within realm of abnormal
acceptable behaviour behaviour
• passion is open and they • have an addiction which
frequently display their objects damages themselves and
and share with other like- those around them
minded enthusiasts • may buy products they don’t
• have a deep interest in a need, or in excessive amounts,
product category, willingness and buy things they can’t
to go to great lengths to secure afford.
items, and spend a lot of time
and money searching.

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 Consumer ethnocentrism: responses
to foreign-made products

• Used to identify market segments receptive to

foreign-made products.

• Highly ethnocentric consumers are more likely to

purchase locally produced products.

• Qantas use this as a strong theme for their

marketing.

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 Consumer self-concept
Self-
concept
is the
totality of
the
Behaviou
individual’
r is often
s
directed
thoughts
towards
and
supportin
feelings
g their
in
self-
reference
concept
to
through
themselv
consumpt
es as an
ion of
object.
products
as
symbols
of their
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concept.
 Self and self-images

Consumers

• Consumers have a number of enduring images

of themselves.
• Consumers tend to buy products and services
that closely respond to their own self-image.

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 One self or multiple selves?

Consumers Different circumstances

• People act differently when

alone, or with different people,
in different situations.

• Marketers can therefore target

products and services to
consumers within the context
of a particular self.

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 The make-up of the self-image

Actual self-image Ideal self-image

How consumers see How consumers would
themselves like to see themselves

Social self-image Ideal social self-image

How consumers feel How consumers would
others see them like others to see them

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 A fifth type of self-image?
• Researchers have identified a fifth type of
self-image expected self-image.
• This is how consumers expect to see
themselves in the future.
• Useful in developing and promoting products.

Use of Expect
Actua product ed
l self- s and
self-
service
image s image

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 Altering the self
• Consumers wish to change or ‘improve’
themselves.

• Common examples are cosmetics, piercings,

hair colouring or undergoing cosmetic
surgery.

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 Brand personality
• Researchers have found inanimate objects such as
brands can be associated with human characteristics.
• Consumers tend to ascribe ‘personality-like’ traits to
different brands.
• The traits of the people associated with the brand are
transferred to the brand.
• Brand personality is also inferred by advertising style,
price, brand name and logo.
• Research has found a strong, positive brand
personality leads to more favourable attitudes
towards the brand, brand preference, high purchase
intentions and brand loyalty.

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 A brand personality framework

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 Brand personality – anthropomorphism
and personification
Product anthropomorphism Brand personification
• The attribution of human Used by marketers to create
characteristics to something consumer perceptions of the
that is not human. product or service into a
human-like character.
For example, Jeep as a
‘rugged’ product exhibiting
strong, bold and confident
behaviours.

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 Summary
• Definition of personality
• Exploration of Freudian, Neo-Freudian and trait
theories
• How personality reflects consumers’ responses to
product and marketing messages
• How products and services enhance self-image
• How marketers create brand personalities

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