Chapter Five
Motivation And Emotion
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Definition of Motivation
• The word itself comes from the Latin word
‘Mover‘, which means -to move.
• Physiological or psychological factors that
account for the arousal, direction, &
persistence of behavior.
• It is a factor by which activities are
started, directed and continued so that
physical or psychological needs or wants
are met.
•
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The aspects of motivation are
Motivation: is the force within the individual
that accounts for the level, direction, and
persistence of effort expended at work.
• Arousal: Factor or motivational state that
prompts the behavior
• Level: the amount of effort a person puts
forth.
• Direction: an individual’s choice when
presented with a number of possible
alternatives (The goal(s) )
• Persistence :We do it no matter what (the
length of time a person stays with a
3
Cont…
Behavior is purposive rather than random
- People exhibit both positive (work done on
time) and negative (arrive late for work)
behavior for a reason
Motivation arouses people to do something
- People are unlikely to change a behavior or
do something different unless they are
motivated to do so
Motivation causes people to focus on a
desired end-result or goal
Motivation fuels the persistence needed to
exhibit sustained effort on a task 4
Motives
o is a need or a want that causes us to act
o Motives can be divided into two major
categories:
Primary / Biological /Physiological Motives
Secondary/ Social / Learned Motives
1. Primary motives are innate in nature
and must be met for survival.
• include hunger, pain avoidance, a need
for oxygen, sleep, elimination of wastes,
and regulation of body temperature
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Conti…
They are called social because they
are learned in social groups, especially
in the family as children grow up and
because they usually involve other
people.
o include needs for achievement,
affiliation, power, approval, status,
security, and aggression.
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Types of Motivation
– Intrinsic motivation
• is a type of motivation in which a person
acts because the act itself is rewarding
or satisfying in some internal manner.
• A desire to perform a behavior that
originates within the individual.
• Don't care if: Paid/Admired/Rewarded
– Extrinsic motivation
• is a type of motivation in which
individuals act because the action leads
to an outcome that is external to a
person.
• A desire to perform a behavior to obtain
an external reward or avoid punishment 7
• Which of these two is the strongest?
Intrinsic or Extrinsic? Why?
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Approaches to Motivation
• The sources of motivation are different
according to the different theories of
motivation.
• There are many causes of behaviour. People
perform behaviour for a number of reasons.
• Psychologists have been studying the causes
of behaviours and have developed various
theories that explain the why of these
behaviours
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Instinct Approaches to
Motivation
• This theory states that motivation is the
result of an inborn, biologically
determined pattern of behavior.
• According to this approach, people and
animals are born with programmed sets of
behavior essential to their survival.
• Motivation is evolutionarily programmed
through inborn instinctual behavior
patterns.
Cont…
• According to this instinct theory, in
humans, the instinct to reproduce is
responsible for sexual behavior, and the
instinct for territorial protection may
be related to aggressive behavior.
• One important thing by forcing
psychologists to realize that some human
behavior is controlled by hereditary
factors.
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Drive-Reduction Approaches
• This approach involved the concepts of
needs and drives.
• A need is a requirement of some material
(such as food or water) that is essential for
the survival of the organism.
• When an organism has a need, it leads to
a psychological tension as well as physical
arousal to fulfill the need and reduce the
tension. This tension is called drive.
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Cont…
• It proposes just this connection
between internal psychological states
and outward behavior.
• In this theory, there are two kinds of
drives:
– Primary drives (biological needs)
are those that involve survival needs
of the body such as hunger and thirst,
– Secondary drives (acquired drives)
are those that are learned through
experience or conditioning, such as 13
Cont…
- Behavior is motivated by desires to
reduce internal tension caused by unmet
biological needs, such as hunger or thirst.
- Internal drives “push” us to behave in
certain ways.
- Robert Woodworth & Clark Hull: Drives are
triggered by internal mechanisms of
homeostasis Internal state of balance.
- Limitations: All behaviors are not always
motivated purely by physiological needs.
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Arousal Approaches
• Explain behavior in which the goal is to
maintain or increase excitement.
• People take certain actions to either
decrease or increase levels of arousal.
• People are motivated to maintain an
optimal level of arousal
15
Cont…
• Each person tries to maintain a certain level
of stimulation and activity.
• As with the drive-reduction model, this
approach suggests that if our stimulation and
activity levels become too high, we try to
reduce them.
• But, in contrast to the drive-reduction
perspective, the arousal approach also
suggests that if levels of stimulation and
activity are too low, we will try to increase
them by seeking stimulation.
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Incentive Approaches
• suggest that motivation stems from the
desire to attain external rewards.
• The desirable properties of external
stimuli: account for a person‘s motivation.
• Embedded in behavioral learning concepts
as association and reinforcement.
Cont…
• Many psychologists believe that the internal
drives proposed by drive-reduction theory work
in a cycle with the external incentives of
incentive theory to ‘push’ and ‘pull’ behavior,
respectively.
• Hence, at the same time that we seek to satisfy
our underlying hunger needs (the push of drive-
reduction theory), we are drawn to food that
appears very appetizing (the pull of incentive
theory).
• Rather than contradicting each other, then,
drives and incentives may work together in
motivating behavior. 18
Cognitive Approaches
• Suggest that motivation is a result of people‘s
thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and goals.
• Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key
difference between intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation.
• Intrinsic motivation causes us to participate in
an activity for our enjoyment rather than for
any actual or concrete reward that it will bring
us.
• In contrast, extrinsic motivation causes us to
do something for money, a grade, or some
other actual, concrete reward. 19
Humanistic Approaches
• Called Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
• Maslow suggested that human behavior is
influenced by a hierarchy, or ranking, of
five classes of needs, or motives.
• People have strong cognitive reasons to
perform various actions.
• Motivation to realize their highest personal
potential.
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Cont…
• He said that needs at the lowest level of
the hierarchy must be at least partially
satisfied before people can be motivated
by the ones at higher levels.
• Maslow‘s five Hierarchies of needs for
motives from the bottom to the top are as
follows:
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Hierarchy of needs theory
– Deficit principle
• A satisfied need is not a motivator of
behavior.
– Progression principle
• A need at one level does not become
activated until the next lower-level
need is satisfied.
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23
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Conflict of Motives and Frustration
• Based on the sources of motivation and the
importance of the decision, people usually
face difficulty choosing among the motives.
• These are just a few of the motives that
may shape a trivial decision.
• When the decision is more important, the
number and strength of motivational pushes
and pulls are often greater, creating far
more internal conflict and indecision.
25
Cont…
• refers to negative emotional state
(depression, anger, anxiety, etc) that
develop when a person is unable to
make a choice between two or more
alternatives.
• There are four basic types of
motivational conflicts.
• Approach-approach conflicts
• Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
• Approach-avoidance conflicts
• Multiple approach-avoidance 26
Cont…
Approach-approach conflicts
- exist when we must choose only one of the
two desirable activities.
Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
- arise when we must select one of two
undesirable alternatives.
Approach-avoidance conflicts
- happen when a particular event or activity
has both attractive and unattractive features
Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts
- exist when two or more alternatives each
have both positive and negative features.
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Cont…
• Suppose you must choose between two jobs. One
offers a high salary with a well-known company but
requires long working hours and relocation to a
miserable climate. The other boasts advancement
opportunities, fringe benefits, and a better climate,
but it doesn‘t pay as much and involves an
unpredictable work schedule.
• An individual may be torn between the idea of going
to a political rally or a movie which he likes to do
equally.
• Such conflicts are capsuled in the saying ‘’ caught
between the devil and the deep blue sea ‘’
• The closer you are to something appealing, the
stronger your desire to approach it, the closer you
are to something unpleasant, the stronger your
desire to flee. 28
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Emotions
Definition of Emotion
- Latin ”Emovere" “To excite, stir up
or agitate.”
- It refers to a strong feeling about
something.
- the ‘feeling’ aspect of consciousness,
characterized by certain physical arousal,
certain behavior that reveals the feeling
to the outside world, and an inner
awareness of feelings.
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Cont…
- Emotions are feelings such as
happiness, despair, and sorrow that
generally have both physiological and
cognitive elements influencing
behavior.
- While motives are internally caused,
emotions are responses to an
external stimulus.
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Three Components of Emotion
The Physiology of Emotion
- when a person experiences an emotion,
there is physical arousal created by the
sympathetic nervous system.
- Bodily arousal: Increased heart rate,
blood pressure, outward blood flow,
activity of the stomach and gastro
intestinal system, hormonal increase,
respiration, etc.
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Cont…
- ANS: Consists of two parts:
o Sympathetic Nervous System: Activated
in response to external threats and
arouses the body for action.
o Parasympathetic Nervous System:
Supports activities that maintain the body
to restore energy.
• It calms down the body to maintain
energy by slowing heart rate, lowering
blood pressure, and so on.
34
Cont…
The Behavior of Emotion
- tells us how people behave in the grip
of an emotion.
- Characteristic overt expressions of
emotions.
- There are facial expressions, tone of
voice, touching, posture, Body gestures,
body movements, and actions that
indicate to others how a person feels.
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Cont…
Subjective Experience or Labeling
Emotion
- it involves interpreting the subjective feeling
by giving it a label: anger, fear, disgust,
happiness, sadness, shame, interest,
surprise and so on.
- Subjective conscious experience and
interpretation of emotions.
- The thoughts, beliefs & expectations
determining the type and intensity of the
emotional response.
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Theories of Emotions
- Major theories of emotion are
grouped into three:
o Physiological: Bodily responses
are responsible for emotions.
o Neurological: Brain activity
leads to emotional responses.
o Cognitive: Mental processes
play an essential role in
formation of emotions.
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Theories of Emotion
James- Lang Theory of Emotion
- This theory of emotion is based on the work
of William James & Carl Lang (1885).
- In this theory, a stimulus of some sort (for
example, the large snarling dog) produces a
physiological reaction. This reaction, which is
the arousal of the -fight-or-flight‖ sympathetic
nervous system (wanting to run), produces
bodily sensations such as increased heart
rate, dry mouth, and rapid breathing.
- James and Lang believed that physical
arousal led to the labeling of the emotion
(fear). 38
Cont…
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
- Developed by Physiologists Walter Cannon and
(1927) and Philip Bard (1934) .
- theorized that the emotion and the physiological
arousal occur more or less at the same time.
- Cannon, an expert in sympathetic arousal
mechanisms, did not feel that the physical changes
aroused by different emotions were distinct enough
to allow them to be perceived as different emotions.
• Bard expanded on this idea by stating that the
sensory information that comes into the brain is sent
simultaneously (by the thalamus) to both the cortex
and the organs of the sympathetic nervous system.
The fear and the bodily reactions are, therefore,
experienced at the same time-not one after the other.
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Cont…
Schechter-Singer and Cognitive Arousal
Theory
• They proposed that two things have to
happen before emotion occurs: the physical
arousal and labeling of the arousal base on
cues from the surrounding environment.
Pounding
• These two things happenheart
at the same time,
Sight of Fear
resulting
oncoming in the labeling
(arousal)of the emotion.
(emotion)
car
(perception of
stimulus)
Cognitive
label
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“I’m afraid”
Sight of Pounding Fear
oncoming heart (emotion)
car (arousal)
(perception of
stimulus)
Pounding
Sight of heart
oncoming (arousal)
car
(perception of
stimulus)
Fear
(emotion)
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