DR.
I PANJA
The digestive system
includes the mouth, pharynx
(throat), esophagus,
stomach, small intestine,
large intestine, rectum, and
anus. It also includes the
salivary glands, liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas,
which make digestive juices
and enzymes that help the
Parts
Of
Oral
cavity
ESOPHAGUS
STOMACH
In humans, the duodenum is a hollow jointed
tube about 25–38 centimetres (10–15 inches)
long connecting the stomach to the
middle part of the small intestine. It begins with
the duodenal bulb and ends at the
suspensory muscle of duodenum.
Duodenum can be divided into four parts:
the first (superior)
the second (descending)
the third (horizontal) and
the fourth (ascending) parts.
The major duodenal papilla (papilla of Vater) is a rounded
projection in the duodenum into which the common bile
duct and pancreatic duct drain. The major duodenal
papilla is, in most people, the primary mechanism for the
secretion of bile and other enzymes that facilitate
digestion.
The minor duodenal papilla is the opening of the
accessory pancreatic duct into the descending second
section of the duodenum
FUNCTION
It is largely responsible for the breakdown of food in
small intestine, using enzymes. The duodenum also
regulates the rate of emptying of the stomach via
hormonal pathways. Secretin and cholecystokinin
are released from cells in the duodenal epithelium in
response to acidic and fatty stimuli present there
when the pylorus opens and emits gastric chyme
into the duodenum for further digestion. These
cause the liver and gallbladder to release bile, and
the pancreas to release bicarbonate and digestive
enzymes such as trypsin, lipase and amylase into
the duodenum as they are needed.
JEJUNUM DEFINATION
The jejunum lies between the duodenum
and the ileum and is considered to start at
the suspensory muscle of the duodenum,
a location called the
duodenojejunal flexure . The division
between the jejunum and ileum is not
anatomically distinct. In adult humans, the
small intestine is usually 6–7 m (20–23 ft)
long (post mortem), about two-fifths of
which (about 2.5 m (8.2 ft)) is the jejunum.
JEJUNUM FUNCTION
The lining of the jejunum is specialized for
the absorption by enterocytes of small
nutrient particles which have been
previously digested by enzymes in the
duodenum. Once absorbed, nutrients (with
the exception of fat, which goes to the
lymph) pass from the enterocytes into the
enterohepatic circulation and enter the liver
via the hepatic portal vein, where the blood
is processed.
ILEUM DEFINATION
The ileum follows the duodenum and jejunum and is
separated from the cecum by the ileocecal valve (ICV).
In humans, the ileum is about 2–4 m long, and the pH is
usually between 7 and 8 (neutral or slightly basic).
Ileum is derived from the Greek word eilein, meaning "to
twist up tightly"
The ileum, along with the jejunum, is suspended inside the
mesentery, a peritoneal formation that carries the blood
vessels supplying them (the superior mesenteric artery and
vein), lymphatic vessels and nerve fibers
There is no line of demarcation between the jejunum and
the ileum. There are, however, subtle differences between
the two:
• The ileum has more fat inside the mesentery than the
jejunum.
• The diameter of its lumen is smaller and has thinner
walls than the jejunum.
• Its circular folds are smaller and absent in the terminal
part of the ileum.
• While the length of the intestinal tract contains lymphoid
tissue, only the ileum has abundant Peyer's patches,
unencapsulated lymphoid nodules that contain large
numbers of lymphocytes and other cells of the immune
system.
ILEUM FUNCTION
The main function of the ileum is to absorb vitamin B12, bile
salts, and whatever products of digestion were not absorbed by
the jejunum. The wall itself is made up of folds, each of which has
many tiny finger-like projections known as villi on its surface. In
turn, the epithelial cells that line these villi possess even larger
numbers of microvilli. Therefore, the ileum has an extremely large
surface area both for the adsorption (attachment) of enzyme
molecules and for the absorption of products of digestion.
Cells in the lining of the ileum secrete the protease and
carbohydrase enzymes responsible for the final stages of protein
and carbohydrate digestion into the lumen of the intestine. These
enzymes are present in the cytoplasm of the epithelial cells.
Which are
Peyer's patches (or
aggregated lymphoid
nodules) are organized
lymphoid [Link]
are an important part of
gut associated lymphoid
tissue usually found in
humans in the lowest
portion of the small
intestine, mainly in the
distal jejunum and the
ileum, but also could be
detected in the
duodenum
The cecum or caecum is a pouch within the peritoneum that
is considered to be the beginning of the large [Link] is
typically located on the right side of the body.
It receives chyme from the ileum, and connects to the
ascending colon of the large intestine. It is separated from the
ileum by the ileocecal valve (ICV) or Bauhin's valve. It is also
separated from the colon by the cecocolic junction. While the
cecum is usually intraperitoneal, the ascending colon is
retroperitoneal.
The primary functions of the cecum are to store liquids and
salts that remain after gastrointestinal processing and
absorption, as well as to combine these substances with a
lubricant called body fluid. Water and salts are ingested
through a mucus coating that covers the majority of the
cecum's contents.
The appendix (or vermiform appendix /
cecal appendix / vermix / vermiform
process) is a finger-like, blind-ended tube
connected to the cecum, from which it
develops in the [Link] term
"vermiform" comes from Latin and means
"worm-shaped". The appendix was once
considered a vestigial organ, but this view
has changed since the early
2000s,Research suggests that the
appendix may serve an important purpose
as a reservoir for beneficial gut bacteria.
the ascending colon is the part of the colon located
between the cecum and the transverse colon. The
ascending colon is smaller in calibre than the cecum
from where it starts. It passes upward, opposite the
colic valve, to the under surface of the
right lobe of the liver, on the right of the gall-bladder,
where it is lodged in a shallow depression, the
colic impression; here it bends abruptly forward and to
the left, forming the right colic flexure (hepatic) where
it becomes the transverse colon.
the transverse colon is the longest and most movable
part of the colon. It crosses the abdomen from the
ascending colon at the right colic flexure (hepatic flexure)
with a downward convexity to the descending colon where
it curves sharply on itself beneath the lower end of the
spleen forming the left colic flexure (splenic flexure). It is
almost completely invested by the peritoneum, and is
connected to the inferior border of the pancreas by a large
and wide duplicature of that membrane, the
transverse mesocolon. The transverse colon absorbs
water and salts
the descending colon is part of the colon extending from
the left colic flexure to the level of the iliac crest (whereupon it
transitions into the sigmoid colon). The function of the
descending colon in the digestive system is to store the
remains of digested food that will be emptied into the rectum.
It usually retroperitoneal
(being lined by peritoneum on its anterior and lateral
aspects), but may be suspended (usually short)
mesentery in a minority of [Link] arterial supply
Comes via the left colic artery.
While the first part of the large intestine is responsible for the
absorption of water and other substances from the chyme,
the main function of the descending colon is to store waste
until it can be removed from the body in solid form, when a
person has a bowel movement. The stools gradually solidify
as they move along into the descending colon
The sigmoid colon (or pelvic colon) is the part of the
large intestine that is closest to the rectum and anus. It
forms a loop that averages about 35–40 centimetres (14–
16 in) in length. The loop is typically shaped like a Greek
letter sigma (ς) or Latin letter S. This part of the colon
normally lies within the pelvis, but due to its freedom of
movement it is liable to be displaced into the
abdominal cavity.
Its function is to expel solid and gaseous waste from the
gastrointestinal tract. The curving path it takes toward the
anus allows it to store gas in the superior arched portion,
enabling the colon to expel gas without excreting faeces
simultaneously.
The rectum is the final straight portion of the large
intestine. The adult human rectum is about 12 centimetres
(4.7 in) long,[2] and begins at the rectosigmoid junction (the
end of the sigmoid colon) at the level of the third sacral
vertebra or the sacral promontory ,Its diameter is similar
to that of the sigmoid colon at its commencement, but it is
dilated near its termination, forming the rectal ampulla.
The rectum acts as a temporary storage site for feces.
The rectum receives fecal material from the
descending colon, transmitted through regular muscle
contractions called peristalsis.[10] As the rectal walls
expand due to the materials filling it from within, stretch
receptors from the nervous system located in the rectal
walls stimulate the desire to pass feces, a process called
defecation.
The anal canal is the part that connects the rectum
to the anus, located below the level of the pelvic
[Link] is located within the anal triangle of
the perineum, between the right and left ischioanal
fossa. As the final functional segment of the bowel,
it functions to regulate release of excrement by two
muscular sphincter complexes. The anus is the
aperture at the terminal portion of the anal canal.
The pectinate line (dentate line) is a line which
divides the upper two-thirds and lower third of the
anal canal.
The anus (Latin, 'ring' or 'circle') is an opening at the
opposite end of an animal's digestive tract from the
mouth. Its function is to control the expulsion of feces, the
residual semi-solid waste that remains after food digestion
An internal and external anal sphincter, and resting
contraction of the puborectalis, prevent leakage of feces (
fecal incontinence). As the rectum becomes more
distended, the sphincters relax and a reflex expulsion of
the contents of the rectum occurs. Expulsion occurs
through contractions of the muscles of the rectum.
The taeniae coli (also teniae coli or tenia coli) are three
separate longitudinal ribbons (taeniae meaning ribbon in
Latin) of smooth muscle on the outside of the ascending,
transverse, descending and sigmoid colons.
They are visible and can be seen just below the serosa or
fibrosa. There are three teniae coli: mesocolic, free and
omental taeniae coli. The teniae coli contract lengthwise
to produce the haustra, the bulges in the colon.
The bands converge at the root of the vermiform
appendix. At the rectosigmoid junction, the taeniae spread
out and unite to form the longitudinal muscle layer. In the
caecum, the ascending colon, the descending colon and
sigmoid colon the positions of these bands are fixed
The haustra (singular haustrum) of the colon are the
small pouches caused by sacculation (sac formation),
which give the colon its segmented appearance. The
teniae coli run the length of the colon. Because the
taenia coli are shorter than the colon, the colon becomes
sacculated between the teniae coli, forming the haustra.
Haustral contractions are slow segmenting,
uncoordinated movements that occur approximately
every 25 minutes. One haustrum distends as it fills with
chyme, which stimulates muscles to contract, pushing
the contents to the next haustrum. Also see peristalsis.
The human liver
weighs
approximately 1500
grams
Glisson's capsule' is the capsule of the liver. It is
a layer of connective tissue surrounding the liver
and enclosing the hepatic artery, portal vein and
bile ducts within the liver.
Meckel's diverticulum is an outpouching or bulge in the
lower part of the small intestine. The bulge is congenital
(present at birth) and is a leftover of the umbilical cord.
Meckel's diverticulum is the most common congenital
defect of the gastrointestinal tract.
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