Control of Operations

• Control of food production operations within a food establishment is a

key factor in ensuring the production of safe and suitable food.
• In order to achieve this purpose, two main approaches need to be
met, first is the development of an accurate and effective system to
meet the different requirement of the produced food from receiving
raw materials, processing steps and the production environment and
hygiene.
• Second is the setting up of effective measures to monitor and review
the control systems of food processing steps and activities.
• On the following pages we are going to learn about the key provisions
required to develop an effective control of operation system.
Product Description

•All food products produced by a food establishment

should have clear, precise and adequate description.
This description might include (but not limited
to): product name and category, raw materials,
allergens, processing steps, preservation
treatments or conditions, packaging, storage
conditions, further steps needed before
consumption, intended use, regulatory
requirements (like shelf-life), key preservation
treatments or conditions … [Link] case of different
food products that are made under the same
conditions with just small differences (for example
potato chips with different flavors), we can make one
product description for such products with the
exception ofpage,
•In the next mentioning all flavors
we are going to seeused in flavor
an example for a
addition.
product description of a food product (sugar snap
cookies).
Example Product Description
Process Sequence and Flow Diagram

•Based on the food type and the processes, it is very important for
the food establishment to construct a flow diagram to describe the
steps used in the production of different food products along with
their correct sequence and interaction points.
•Rework, by-product and waste pathways could be included in the
flow diagram.
•Flow diagram of a food product is usually established and
developed by the food safety team of the establishment and needs
to be verified for accuracy by onsite-confirmation, and to be updated
when necessary. In case of similar products (like our previous potato
chips example), one flow diagram can be used.
•Moreover, in the case of critical processing steps which include crucial
treatments to ensure the safety of foods (like milk pasteurization process), the
optimum or required conditions (like temperature used and duration) can be
added to this step in the flow [Link] the next page, we are going to
see an example for a flow diagram of a food product (sugar snap
Example Flow Diagram (Sugar Snap Cookies)
Monitoring

• The food establishment should conduct a planned sequence of observations or

measurements of control parameters to assess whether production steps or
hygienic measures are under control or not. Documented procedures have to be
set to define monitoring activities. The following table, for example, could be
used for organizing the monitoring step:

Examples for monitoring devices:

Thermometers, pH meters, moisture devices, aw devices, ATP bioluminescence (for monitoring the
cleanliness), timers, etc.
Please note that “what is to be monitored” and “when to monitor” are based mainly on the
food product type and the conditions of production. For more details, see the next two
examples ...
Monitoring Examples

• These two examples show you “what is to be monitored” and “when

to monitor” :

• Example (1) for “What to be monitored”:In the production of Ultra

High Temperature (UHT) treated juice, the most important processing
condition to be monitored is the heat treatment (temperature and
time). Heat or temperature can be monitored by using heat measuring
devices that can read the temperature up to a higher ranges suitable
for UHT process (135 degree C or higher) while time can be monitored
by time recording devices or timers. However, in the modern food
industry, this operation is now performed and actions are taken
automatically in case of any deviation.
Monitoring Examples

• Example (2) for “When to monitor”:If we compare between

two different food products (i.e. fresh minced meat and
packaged sugar), which one of them do you expect to be
monitored on short time intervals?Of course the fresh minced
meat has to be monitored on a short-time interval basis as it is
a more risky food due to the higher moisture and higher initial
microbial load, while sugar is very low in moisture and thus
prevents the growth of microorganisms.
Corrective Actions

When monitoring processes detect any deviation from food hygiene

requirement, for example: the concentrations of disinfection solutions were less
than the recommended, food heat treatment temperature didn’t reach the
minimum recommended level, high acid foods pH were found to be near
neutral ...etc., what should the establishment do in this case? The answer is
taking “Corrective Actions”. Before we study what is meant by “corrective
actions, we have to differentiate between three terms that are widely used in
this regard; correction, corrective actions and preventive actions.

Correction:-A correction means taking action in a timely manner to identify

and correct a minor and isolated problem that does not directly impact product
safety.
Corrective Actions

Corrective Action:- A corrective action is an in-depth

procedure that must be taken to identify and correct the root
cause of the problem in what is so called Root Cause Analysis
(RCA). Many methods can be used to achieve this like the use of
fishbone diagram, 5 Whys and thought showers.

Preventive Action:- It is an action taken to determine and

eliminate the causes of a POTENTIAL non-conformity or a
problem. In other words, preventing the reoccurrence of the
problem.
Corrective Actions

Let’s try together to apply what we have learnt about corrective actions using
this example:
While performing a regular checking and monitoring procedure, a supervisor in a
food establishment observed an increase (above 5 degree C) in the temperature of
raw materials stored in a refrigerator. Moreover, and when opening the doors of
the refrigerator, he found some raw materials having signs of spoilage (microbial
growth and unwanted odor) … Describe what are the correction, corrective and
preventive actions to be taken in this case.
Answer:
Correction:- In this case, correction can be done by the removal and
destruction of affected products or the stored materials with obvious signs of
spoilage. Other materials can be transferred to another working refrigerator
(isolated) and to be kept on hold until performing the proper analyses to determine
their validity for use.
Corrective Actions

Corrective Action:- Let’s conduct 5 why’s method!Why did the temperature

increase? Because the cooling coils stopped working.
• Why did the cooling coils stop working? Because they were installed
[Link] were they installed incorrectly? Because the maintenance person
didn’t receive adequate training on this topic.
• Why he didn’t receive training? Because training on refrigerator maintenance was
not included in the training plan of the establishment..So, the solution will be the
inclusion of refrigerator maintenance training on the training programs of the
establishment.
• (Note that it is not necessarily to be “5” why’s, we can use less or more why’s
until we reach the root cause)
Corrective Actions

Preventive Action:- It can be done by establishing

a routine and regular monitoring and preventive
maintenance system supported by necessary documents
and records on the refrigerators area of the
establishment.
Receiving of Raw Materials

• All raw materials should be purchased from registered suppliers, and to be

assessed against a defined criteria and specifications. These criteria should be
based on scientific facts and applicable regulations and standards. Food
establishment has to retain the right to perform the necessary audits (second
party audit) on its suppliers to ensure their compliance with the appropriate food
safety and suitability [Link] receiving, raw materials have to be
checked by visual inspection for any spoilage signs, the documents and
certificates (like Certificate of Analysis CoA) have to be reviewed and sampling
procedure is conducted to assess the compliance of the received materials with
the specifications.
• The conditions such as transportation temperature (when necessary) and the
cleanliness of the vehicles are also tested. Received materials, when accepted are
then included in the establishment stock rotation systems such as FIFO (First-In-
First-Out) or FEFO (First-Expired-First-Out) systems.
Nature of Food Products and Processing Steps

Based on type and characteristics of produced food, specific

processing steps are included into the production process to control
the safety and suitability of food. Control of temperature is one of
the most common ways to stop or reduce the microbial growth.
Pathogenic bacteria were found to grow rapidly and multiply in
what is so called “danger zone”. According to several scientific
references, this zone ranges as roughly from 5 to 60 degrees
Celsius. Above or below this range, bacterial growth is stopped or
inhibited. The longer time food stays at this temperature range, the
greater pathogenic bacterial growth occurs, and consequently a
higher probability of food poisoning.
Some food processing and preservation method are widely used to
kill pathogenic bacteria steps in the food industry such as high
temperature treatments like cooking, pasteurization and Ultra High
Temperature (UHT) treatment. On the other hand, some treatments
are used to increase the shelf-life of foods by the reduction or
inhibition of the bacterial growth like chilling or freezing.
Nature of Food Product and Processing Steps

However, measures have to be taken to ensure the efficacy

and continuity of temperature control systems, especially
those with a direct impact on food safety and quality.

Other processing steps have to be also considered when

studying the effect of temperature control on the safety of
foods such as the initial microbial count and nature, the use
of other preservation methods, pH and moisture content of
the product, packaging methods … etc. that might have a
conducive effect in this respect.

Establishment has also to ensure that when preservatives

are used (alone or in combination with heat treatments),
they have to be within the recommended levels. Food
formulations have to be monitored and checked to ensure
the use of the different ingredients at the appropriate level
Possible Contaminants

Food establishment should pay great attention to prevent or

minimize any source of contamination from reaching to foods.
The sources of contamination varies from the raw materials,
improper practices, inadequate hygiene, improper processing, to
the end storage and dispatch stages. As we mentioned before,
The main four contaminants (or hazards) in foods are
microbiological, chemical physical contaminants and allergens
(for people with allergy). The type of contaminants likely to be
present in foods depends mainly on food type and processing
steps.
Microbiological Contamination

•It is one of the most common food contamination types. It

results from the presence of pathogenic microorganisms into
foods. Some examples of pathogenic microorganisms are
bacteria (like salmonella, S. aureus, Listeria Spp. … etc.), viruses
(like Hepatitis A and Norovirus) and parasites (such as
trematodes).Bacterial growth in foods is determined by
six major factors that are summarized in the
term FATTOM which are short letters for Food, Acidity, Time,
Temperature, Oxygen and Moisture, respectively.
•Having known the type and characteristics of the food
processed, we can predict the bacterial activity within it. For
example foods with lower moisture content (such as sugar,
cookies and dried food) are not expected to have a significant
microbial load due to their lower moisture content. Also, the
presence of pathogenic bacteria in high acid foods (low pH) such
as pickles tends to be very low. On contrast, foods with high
moisture content and near neutral pH values (such as milk) are
Microbiological Contamination

• During food manufacturing, bacteria and other microorganisms can reach food
through improperly treated raw materials, cross contamination, food handlers,
unclean surfaces, splashing or by particles borne by air.
• After handling raw foods, surfaces and tools used in such operations should be
thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. An effective zoning system also has to be
in place to separate between low and high risk areas or materials to prevent
contamination. Personnel also have to adhere to food safety and hygiene
instructions and requirements.
• In addition to the aforementioned precautions, some processing steps are, in
themselves designed and included in food production process to prevent or
reduce the microbial growth, for example : pasteurization, UHT, cooking or the
addition of preservatives. Such operations have to be accurately performed
and monitored to ensure their effectiveness.
Chemical Contamination

• Chemical contamination occurs when any harmful chemical substance

reaches accidentally or unintentionally to food. These chemical substances
include for example pesticide and veterinary drug residues, cleaning and
disinfection chemicals, heavy metals, naturally occurring toxins, non-food
grade lubricants, mycotoxins, extra amounts of food additives above
recommended levels, etc. Preventive control measures have to be taken to
prevent chemical contaminants from being present in foods.
• These measures might include the effective separation between food
materials and cleaning chemicals at the storage area, using of food-grade
lubricants and the proper use of food additives. Analysis of received raw
plant materials for pesticide residue and animal origin materials for
veterinary drug residue is an effective way to control such contaminant in
foods.
Physical Contamination

• Physical contamination occurs when a physical object enters food at any

stage of the production or processing steps. These objects can include:
broken glass, metal pins, jewelry, hair, stones, wood fragments, cigarette
butts and fingernails. Moreover, some food-originated objects are not
acceptable when present in the wrong food product (like bones in minced
beef).
• To control the physical hazards, some measures can be taken like the use of
filters (where appropriate), sieves and metal/x-ray detectors. Also,
personnel have to be trained on how to prevent physical contamination in
ways like wearing hairnet, protective clothing, and stopping inappropriate
practices like smoking or eating outside the designated areas.
• Procedures have to be in place, and appropriate action to be taken in case
any glass breakage occurs in the establishment.
Allergen Management

Food allergy is an unusual immune system

reaction that occurs in a group of people
soon after eating a particular food. Among
different food groups that cause allergy,
eight foods were found to be responsible for
more than 90% of food allergy cases (in the
USA) that are: milk, eggs, fish, shellfish, tree
nuts, peanuts,
However, wheat, and
this number soybean.
varies from a country to another according
the scientific research findings and statistics (for example, in the
UK there are 14 foods that are considered as top allergic foods
which include the aforementioned eight foods in addition to
celery, mustard, sesame, lupine, sulfur dioxide and sulphites (at
concentrations more than 10 ppm).
Allergen Management

• Food allergy has different symptoms that range from mild to severe
ones, which might include: hives, itchiness, swelling of the tongue,
nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, trouble breathing, fainting or low blood
pressure.
• An effective allergen control system has to be in place starting from the
first stages of raw materials receipt to the last step of food production.
Appropriate labeling along with allergen identification has to be
provided with food containing any allergen. Separation between
allergic and non-allergic foods has to be considered and guaranteed. In
case separation is impossible or difficult (like in the preparation of food
formulas that must have an allergic ingredient); the consumer has to be
informed then.
Packaging

•Food packaging is essential for

protecting food against external
microbes and bacteria. In addition,
packaging has some other functions like
preventing the damage of foods and
showing the information as written on
the label. Food manufacturers should
ensure the use of approved packaging
materials that do not pose any threat to
the food. Reusable packages (like in
case of refillable water bottles) have to
be durable
•Food packagesand easy
also havetotoclean and well
be stored
disinfect.
covered and protected from dust or direct
exposure to sun or heat.
Regulations and Specification

The purposes of food legislation are to protect the health of the consumer, to protect the
consumer from fraud, and to ensure the essential quality and wholesomeness of foods. Food
specifications should be based on scientific evidence. These specifications include (but not
limited to) maximum allowed residue levels of pesticide and veterinary drugs, microbiological
criteria, sampling procedures, analysis methods, quality characteristics and good food safety
practices.
• Following are some of national and international food specifications and their resources:

• - Current Good Manufacturing Practices (CGMPs) for Food and Dietary

Supplements [Link]
current-good-manufacturing-practices-cgmps-food-and-dietary-supplements
• - Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) and Risk Management Recommendations (RMRs) for
Residues of Veterinary Drugs in Foods- Codex Alimentarius CX/MRL 2-2018
([Link]
- European Commission Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005 of 15 November 2005 on
microbiological criteria for foodstuffs ([Link]
Verification

• As defined by Codex Alimentarius (CXC 1-1969, last modified 2020), verification is

the “application of methods, procedures, tests and other evaluations, in addition
to monitoring, to determine whether a control measure is or has been operating
as intended”.Food establishment should conduct the appropriate verification
activities to ensure that GHP are conducted properly and that the produced food
products are in compliance with food safety requirements. These activities could
include:
- Confirmation that the GMP arrangements are in compliance with the relevant
regulations and standards.
- Recording and documentation of any updates or changes occur in the food
products, operations and/or procedures as relevant to the safety level of foods
along with the impact of such changes.
- Testing the efficiency of cleaning and disinfection programs.
Transportation

In this section we are going to study food transportation within the food
establishment and food loading/unloading from transportation vehicles.
In general, and during food transportation
process within the establishment, food has
to be properly and adequately controlled.
Foods have to be delivered to their intended
destination in safe and suitable status. Thus,
strict measures have to be taken to
guarantee that transported foods are
protected from cross-contamination, taking
the necessary control measures to prevent
microbial growth like temperature control
and proper packaging, and protecting food
Transportation

Conveyors and transportation food containers have to be

designed, checked and monitored for efficacy, suitability
and cleanliness. Separation between food and non-food
materials and raw and processed food during
transportation is vital to prevent cross-contamination.
Attention has to be paid to maintaining the proper
transportation condition like temperature, humidity and
aeration (when necessary).
In case conveyors or containers are used for
transportation of food and non-food materials, control
measures are to be taken to prevent the cross-
contamination such as using effective cleaning and
disinfection system between batches.
Forklift trucks should not contaminate foods with exhaust
fumes, thus they are preferred to be of the type that
Transportation Vehicles

For transportation vehicles, they must be

checked for cleanliness, pests and their
signs and vehicle suitability for food
transportation.
Temperature and humidity have to be
monitored in all transportation stages.
Improper loading practices, conditions, or
equipment can pose a threat to the safety
and suitability of food. Also, appropriate
packaging/packing of food products and
transportation unit’s requirements has to
be carried out in a proper way.
Drivers and loading assistants have to be
well trained on food safety in general, and
Product Information and Consumer Awareness

Many problems associated with the safety and suitability of food can arise from the inadequate food
information which by its turn results in poor handling practices and consequently the growth of
pathogenic microorganisms or contamination of food even if food was properly and safely produced.
• Other example for the consequences of inadequate information is the inclusion of allergenic food
constituent without a notification which might lead to a serious harm to allergic people..
• Availability of adequate raw material information of foods is necessary to be provided by the
suppliers in the previous food chain point. Also, food manufacturer has to provide the next party in
the food supply chain with enough information about his food products. Moreover, setting up a
unique lot or batch identification code or number is a key requirement in this regard in order to be
able to perform the necessary product traceability and to effectively perform product
recall/withdrawal in case of any food contamination or nonconformity.
Consumers should be provided with the required information of the food
they consume, especially with the presence of allergens and the
necessary handling, preparation and storage needs of the food product.
Traceability

Traceability is defined as “the ability to follow the movement of a food through specified
stage(s) of production, processing and distribution”. As a food safety matter, traceability
systems allow the food manufacturer to detect where exactly on the food chain or in
processing steps contamination, nonconformity or consumer complaint source has taken
place.

Moreover, traceability facilitates the product recall/withdrawal from the distributors or

consumers in case of any related food safety or suitability issues. For the above reasons, food
products have to be clearly identified with unique numbers or codes which represent the
necessary processing information about the lot or batch of food. Some information or codes
can include: production date, time of production, processing line, production shift … etc.
Product Information and Labeling

In order to enable the next party in the food chain to handle food appropriately,
clear product information and instructions have to be provided. This information
should also include clear notice of allergens that are included within food formula.
According to Codex Alimentarius (CXS 1-985, modified 2018), mandatory
information have to be included on the label of food that are:
• 1- Name of food
• 2- List of ingredients.
• 3- Net content and/or drained weight
• 4- Name and address of the manufacturer
• 5- Country of origin •Additional mandatory information has to be
• 6- Lot identification included in some cases are:
•1- Quantitative ingredient declaration
• 7- Date marking and storage instructions •2- Written statement in case of irradiated
• 8- Instructions for use. foods.
Nutrition Facts

In some countries, the Nutrition Facts label is required

by competent authorities on most packaged foods and
beverages. It contains some nutritional information to
the consumer per serving size which include: calories,
total fat (saturated and trans), cholesterol, sodium,
total carbohydrate (dietary fiber total and added
sugars), protein, vitamin D, and minerals (calcium,
iron, potassium) expressed as both amounts and % of
daily needs each.

In a number of countries, and according to laws and

standards, it is mandatory to food manufacturers that
food labels clearly disclose the presence of allergens,
so that food-allergic consumers can avoid the foods
Example Food Label Information

Example on a food product (orange

drink) mandatory label information:
(please note that #2 includes two information)

#1- Ingredients.

#2- Country of origin and name/address of the

manufacturer

#3- Instructions for use.

#4- Date marking.

#5- Lot Identification

#6- Net Content

Consumer Awareness and Education

• Consumers have to be informed and educated about the key principles

of food safety and hygiene. They should be provided with adequate
training programs covering the different aspects of safe and proper
handling and storage of foods along with information about essential
practices like hand washing, reading and interpreting packaged food
labels, proper storage of food …etc. Also, they should be informed
about how to voice their opinion and complaints to both food
manufacturers and the competent authorities.
• Additional readings:
World Health Organization (WHO) five keys to safer food manual.
[Link]
pdf
Operations and Information - Lesson summary

• Control of food production operations within the food establishment is a key factor in ensuring the
production of safe and suitable food.
• All food products produced by a food establishment should have clear, precise and adequate
description.
• It is very important to the food establishment to construct a flow diagram to describe the steps
used in the production of food along with their correct sequence and interaction points.
• A food establishment should conduct a planned sequence of observations or measurements of
control parameters to assess whether production steps or hygienic measures are under control or
not.
• A corrective action is an in-depth procedure that must be taken to identify and correct the root
cause of the problem (Root Cause Analysis, RCA).
• All raw materials should be purchased from registered suppliers, and to be assessed against a
defined criteria and specifications.
• Food establishment should pay great attention to prevent or minimize any source of contamination
from reaching to foods. The sources of contamination varies from the raw materials, improper
practices, inadequate hygiene, improper processing, to the end storage and dispatch stages.
Operations and Information - Lesson summary

• The purpose of food legislation is to protect the health of the consumer, to protect the consumer
from fraud, and to ensure the essential quality and wholesomeness of foods.
• Food has to be properly and adequately controlled during transportation process within the
establishment.
• Consumers should be provided with the required information of the food, especially with the
presence of allergens and the necessary handling, preparation and storage needs of the food
product.
• The mandatory information to be shown on the label are: name of food, list of ingredients, net
content and/or drained weight, name and address of the manufacturer, Country of origin, lot
identification, date marking and storage instructions, and instructions for use.
• Traceability is “the ability to follow the movement of a food through specified stage(s) of
production, processing and distribution”.
• Traceability allows the food manufacturer to detect where exactly on the food chain or in
processing steps contamination, nonconformity or consumer complaint takes place.
• Clear product information and instruction have to be provided to enable the next party in food
chain to handle food appropriately.