Identification and Medico legal

aspect
• Identification is the determination of the
individuality of a person based on certain
physical characteristics.
• It can be:
• i. Complete (absolute): Absolute fixation of the
individuality of a person.
• ii. Partial (incomplete): Ascertainment of only
some facts (e.g. race, sex, age or stature) about
the identity, while the others remain unknown
• Identification is necessary in: Living persons
pertaining to:
• Criminal cases
– Š Persons accused of assault,
– murder or rape Š Š
– Interchange of newborn babies in hospitals Š Š
– Absconding soldiers and criminals Š Š
 Civil cases
• Passport/license Š Impersonation Š
• Inheritance
• Marriage
• Missing
• Disputed sex
 Dead people
i. In cases of fire, explosion and accidents.
ii. When an unknown dead body is found on the
road, fields, railway compartment or water.
iii. In cases of decomposed body.
iv. In cases of mutilated body.
v. Skeleton.
Before identifying the patient in the court, the
doctor should verify the identification marks
noted by him.
 Corpus delicti (‘body of offence’)
• It refers to the principle that it must be proven
that a crime has actually occurred before a
person can be convicted of committing the
crime. In a charge of homicide, it includes:
– Positive identification of the dead body (victim)
– Proof of its death by criminal act of accused
The term includes body of the victim, bullet
or clothing showing marks of the weapon or
photographs showing fatal injures.
• The main part of corpus delecti is the
establishment of identity of the body and infliction
of violence in a particular way, at a particular time
and place by the person or persons charged with
crime and none other.
• The identification of a dead body and proof of
corpus delecti is essential before a sentence is
passed in murder trials, as unclaimed, decomposed
bodies or portions of a dead body or bones are
sometimes produced to support a false charge
 Identification data
• In living and dead both
1. Race and religion
2. Sex
3. Age
4. Teeth
5. General development and stature
6. Anthropometric measurements
7. Fingerprints, lip prints and footprints
8. External peculiarities, like scar or tattoo
9. Hair
10. Personal effects: clothes, pocket contents
In living only
• Handwriting
• Speech and voice
• Gait, manner and habit
• Memory and education
In living only Handwriting Speech and voice
Gait, manner and habit Memory and
education
 Race and Religion
• Important in cases of mass disasters, e.g. in case
of railway accidents or air crashes, when
persons of different races are traveling together.
• Race determined by
– Clothing
– Complexion
– Eye
– Hair
– Skull: Cephalic Index
 Maximum transverse breadth of skull-
CI=----------------------------------------× 100 Maximum AP length of
skull

• Different types of skull based on cephalic

index
Type of skull Cephalic Race
index
Dolichocephalic (long- 70–74.9 Aryans, Aborigines,
headed) Negroes
Mesaticephalic (medium- 75–79.9 Europeans, Chinese
headed)
Brachycephalic (short- 80–84.9 Mongolian4
headed)
 Caucasian/European, Mongolian and Negroid
skull
[Link]. Feature Caucasians Mongols Negroes

1. Skull Rounded5 Square Narrow and elongated

2 Forehead Raised Inclined Small and compressed

3 Face Straight lower face Large and Jaw projecting—
orthognathism flattened malar prognathism, malar
bones prominent bones prominent
4 Orbit Traiangular small Round Square
5 Nasal Narrow and Rounded Broad
Opening elongated
6 Palate Triangular Rounded and Rectangular
Horse shoe
shaped
 Religion
• „ Hindu males are not circumcised, may have
sacred thread, necklace of wooden beads,
caste marks on forehead, tuft of hair on back
of the head and piercing of ear lobes. „
• Muslim males are normally circumcised, have
marks of corns and callosities on lateral aspect
of knees and feet due to their posture during
prayer. „
• Hindu females put on saris, vermilion on head,
silver toe ornaments, tattoo marks, nose ring
aperture in left nostril and few openings for
ear rings along the helix.
• Muslim females put on trousers, no vermilion
mark, nose ring in the septum, several
openings on the helix for ear rings and no
tattoo marks
 Sex
• Sex: It is the biological term denoting the genetic,
physiologic and anatomical characteristics of an
individual, based on which we can identify ourselves
into ‘males’ and ‘females’. „
• Gender: Sociological construct that denotes how an
individual identifies according to social norms
(social roles, position and behavior), based on which
an individual exhibits ‘masculine’ or ‘feminine’
qualities. It is the sexual identity of an individual
from birth to puberty and adulthood.
• Intersex: Intermingling of sexual characters of
either sex in one individual to a varying degree
including the physical form, reproductive
organs and sexual behavior
• In normal cases, in the living: „
– Most certain evidence of sex: Possession of
ovaries in females, and testes in males. „
– Highly probable evidence of sex: Possession of
sexual structures, e.g. developed breasts and
vagina in females, and male distribution of hair
and penis in males. „
– Presumptive evidence of sex: Outward
appearance of individual features, contours of
face, clothes, voice and figure
Sex determination is required for following
reasons:
• „ Identification in living: Sex is important in any chain of
identity data and determination of the individuality of a
person. „
• Participation in sports: Sex segregation in sports is based
on the long-term endogenous androgen exposure of men
at puberty that lead to the physiological gap with women. „
• For deciding whether an individual can exercise certain civil
rights extended to one sex only. „
• For deciding questions relating to legitimacy, divorce,
paternity, marriage, impotence, rape and affiliation.
• Simple identification of decayed deadbody
 Determination of sex in the Living
1. Presumptive Evidence of sex- Outward appearance
Clothing
General appearance of the face
The body contour
Distribution of Hair and evidence of shaving
Habits
Voice

In concealed sex? Behave alike opposite sex?

2. Probable evidence- sec. Sexual characteristic
– Breast development
– Distribution of hair
– Muscular development
– Vagina, Penis Presence

Intersex?
3. Positive Evidence test
– Barr Body or sex chromatin Intra nuclear
structure present inner surface of nuclear
membrane, of the somatic cells of females.
Which is absent in males.
– Davidson’s and Smith Body- in females cells
nucleus. “Drumsticks” alike lobe , very rarely in
males.
 Intersex
• Intersex is a group of conditions in which there
is a discrepancy between the external genitals
and the internal genitals (the testes and
ovaries).
• Classification-
 Klinefilter syndrome-
• Male hypogonadism 47-XXY
• Common in male- 1 in 850
• Eunuchoid body with long legs, small atropic
testis with small penis
• Lack of sec. sexual characteristic
• Deep voice
• Male distribution of pubic hair,
• Gynacomastia
 Turner Syndrome
• Phenotypic Female- 45X0. PARTIAL monosomy
• Short stature, Low posterior hairline, webbing
of neck, Broad chest, widely placed nipple
• Cubits vulgas, Pigmented Nevi
• Peripheral lymph edema at birth
 Hermaphrodites
• True
• Female Pseudo Hermaphrodites
• Male Pseudo Hermaphrodites
 Age
• Age determination can be done through many
means, and an analysis of all possible age-related
attributes is best for an overall estimate.
• Some of the utilized features include:
• i. Dental eruption
• ii. Epiphyseal unions
• iii. Pubic symphyseal morphology
• iv. Cranial suture closures
• v. Mandibular and sacral changes
• vi. Miscellaneous
– a. Secondary sexual characters
– b. Age-related degenerative conditions
 Dentition in Determining Age
• Age can be determined by using the criteria
like eruption and calcification of teeth,
• Stack’s method,
• Miles method,
• Boyde’s method and
• Gustafson’s method
• Alveolar cavities which contain teeth are
formed around the 3–4th month of
intrauterine life (IUL). „
• At birth, rudiments of all the temporary teeth
and the 1st permanent molars may be found
in jaw
• Each individual has two sets of teeth
– i. Temporary/deciduous/milk teeth
– ii. Permanent teeth
 Temporary teeth
• „20 in number:
• 4 incisors, 2 canines and 4 molars in each jaw.
• „ The eruption of the deciduous teeth commences at about
6–7 months after birth and is completed about 2nd-3rd year.
• the lower central incisors anteceding those of the upper.
However, upper lateral incisor erupts earlier than its lower
quadrant counterpart.
• In ill-nourished children, especially in rickets, dentition may
be delayed. „
• In congenital syphilis, teeth may be premature or even
present at birth.
Sl no Feature Temporary d Permanant
1 Size Smaller, lighter, narrower, Heavier, stronger,
except temporary molars broader, except
which are longer than permanent
permanent premolars
2 Direction of Vertical Inclined forward
anterior teeth
3 Crown China-white Ivory-white
4 Neck More constricted Less constricted
5 Root Roots of molars are smaller, Roots of molars are
more divergent larger, less divergent

6 Incisors Smooth incisal edge Ridged, especially

on incisal surface
7 Radiology Presence of tooth germ No such thing visible
beneath tooth will suggest in case of
that tooth is temporary permanent teeth
 Permanent teeth
• 32 in number—4 incisors, 4 premolars, 2 canines and 6
molars in each jaw.
• Developmentally teeth are divided into 2 sets:
– a. Super-added permanent teeth: These teeth do not have
deciduous predecessors. All permanent molars belong to this
category (6 in each jaw).
– b. Successional permanent teeth: These teeth erupt in place of
deciduous teeth, e.g. permanent premolars erupt in place of
deciduous molars (10 in each jaw). „
• Usually permanent tooth erupts first in lower jaw. „
Permanent teeth appear few months earlier in girls than in
boys.
• Eruption of teeth is useful in estimating age
upto 15 years. The third molar (wisdom tooth)
erupts after this time, but is so variable in
eruption that it is not a reliable age indicator.
• If, in the jaw all 3rd molars are present, then
the age is over 18 years, but their absence
gives no certain idea about age
 Period of mixed dentition
• Starting from the day of eruption of first
permanent molar till before the eruption of
last permanent canine—both temporary and
permanent teeth are present in the jaw. This
duration is known as period of mixed
dentition. Usually, it is between 6–11 years,
but may persist until 12–13 years.
 Number of teeth with age
Age(Years) Number Type of Teeeth
of teeth
2-5 20 All deciduous
6 21-24 Eruption of 1st Molars (Perm)
7-9 24 12 Permanent 8 incisor, 4molars,
12 Deciduous 4 Canine, 8 Molars
10 24 20 Permanent- 8 Incisor, 4molar, 4 premolars
8 Deciduous -4 Canines, 4 second Molars
11 24 20 Permanent- 8 Incisor, 4molar, 8 premolars
4 Deciduous -4 Canines
12-14 25-28 eruption of Second Molars
14-17 28 All permanent
17-25 29-32 Eruption of 3rd Molar
• Stack’s method evolved a method to estimate
the age from the weight of the erupting teeth
of fetus and infant. He provided a regression
line of weight of growing dental tissues against
age (from 5 months in utero to postnatal age
of 7 months).
• Boyde’s method: mainly to estimate age of
dead infants, is based on counting the number
of cross striations in the enamel of teeth (
 Gustafson’s Method
• Age estimation consists of microscopic
examination of longitudinal section of central
part of the tooth to assess changes in teeth as
a result of wear and tear with advancing age.
• Estimate age between 25–60 years
• Useful only while examining a dead body or
skeletal remains, as teeth need to be
extracted for examination.
 Gustofson’s Criteria
[Link] Changes Description
.
1 Attrition Wearing down of occlusal surface due to mastication, first
involving enamel, then dentin and lastly pulp
2 Periodontosis Progressive infilling of the dental pulp cavity, decreases
the size of cavity and may completely obliterate it
3 Secondary Dentin Progressive infilling of the dental pulp cavity, decreases
the size of cavity and may completely obliterate it
4 Cementum Cementum increase in thickness around the root due to
apposition changes in tooth position, continuously deposited
throughout life and forms incremental lines.
5 Root resorption Involves both cementum and dentin. Starts at apex and
extends upwards.
6 Root transparency Occurs in root from below upwards in lower jaw and
above downwards in upper jaw due to rarefaction of the
dentin tissue. Most reliable of all criteria
• Before tooth is extracted from the body, degree of
periodontosis is estimated.
• Tooth is ground down on glass slabs from both sides to about
1 mm, which allows estimation of transparency, then it is
further ground to about ¼ mm for microscopic examination.
• Anterior teeth are more suitable than posterior teeth. Merit
decreases from incisors to premolars, molars are quite
unsuitable.
• All changes are absent at 15 years. Error is ± 10–15 years.
• Limit of error increases above 50 years of age.
• 0-3 points are allotted to indicate the degree of any of these
changes:
– 0–No change
– 1–Beginning of change
– 2–Obvious change
– 3–Maximum change
• The transparency of root & secondary den tine have
the highest correlation with age. Gustafson
developed a ranking scale from 0-3 for each of the
six criteria. By studying the cross-section (ground to
0.25-mm thick ness) of a tooth microscopically,
points are assigned to the various changes, and the
total score obtained is applied to the followng
regression formula:
• Total score = A +P+S+C+R+T
• Age (years) = 11.43+4.56 x (total score)
• This has come to be known as the Gustafson's
method of estimating age from teeth. In order
to make the method simpler, some
investigators have reduced the number of
parameters to 4. attrition, secondary dentine,
cementum apposition, and transparency of
root.
 Medicolegal importance of teeth:
• Apart from estimation of age, dentition can be useful in a
number of ways, and its study in relation to crime
investigation has evolved into a dynamic new branch called
Forensic Odontology.

• Because teeth resist putrefaction and other destructive

processes such as fire for a significantly longer period than
most other structures in the body, they can be invaluable in
the identification of decomposing or disintegrating remains.
From the tooth pulp, tissues can be taken for determination
of blood group, sex of the individual, and also for DNA
fingerprinting.
 Forensic Odontology
Application of dental knowledge in the investigation of crime and
administration of justice.
scope
Dental study can be extremely helpful in: Identification of unknown dead
body:
• This is done by comparing antemortem and post mortem records, or by
DNA study of tooth pulp.
• Identification of burnt, mutilated, or decomposing remains (teeth are very
resistant to decomposing or destructive processes).
• Estimation of age, on the basis of eruption status, Gustafson's method, etc.
• Identification of race, occupation, sex, etc., by study of characteristic
features.
• Identification of culprit through bite marks.
• Diagnosis of poisoning, e.g., lead poisoning leaves behind a bluish line on
the gingival margins.
 Appearance and fusion of centres of
ossification
• Development and growth of bones take place by various
methods of ossification. The process of appearance and union
of ossification centers follows a definite time sequence which
can be utilized for age estimation. As a general rule, the
ageing of bones is more precise with respect to the
appearance of centers of ossification than it is with respect to
the union of epiphyses.

• One of the best methods of age estimation is undoubtedly the

radiological survey of ossification status of various bones. In
young children, radiological examination of hand and foot
alone can be sufficient for accurate fixation of age.
 Ossification centres at elbow. C = Capitel lum; R =
Radius; I = Internal or Medial Epicondyle; T = Trochlea;
O = Olecranon; E = External or Lateral Epicondyle
 Closure of skull sutures
• The closure of skull sutures seems to take place from the
inner to the outer table, i.e., endocranial to ectocranial
surface. Due to the phenomenon of lapsed union, i.e.,
incomplete union ectocranially, more reliance should be
placed on endocra nial closure.
• However, age evaluation by this method is generally not
accurate, since it can only provide a range in decades.
But it can be considered partially corroborative in the
presence of other features.

• The following points must be borne in mind:

• The metopic suture which is present at birth
between the right and left halves of the
frontal bones, usually closes by the age of 2-6
years. However, in some cases it may persist
throughout life (metopism).
• Posterior fontanelle (occipital)64 At birth to 6
months.
• Posterior fontanelle
(occipital) At birth to
6 months
• Basal suture of the skull usually closes by 18-
21 years (but can be delayed up to 40 years).
• Closure of vault sutures rarely occurs before
the age of 30 years.
• Between 30 and 50 years, the sagittal and
coronal sutures close endocranially.
• Ectocranial closure may or may not
occur.
• The usual sequence is for the sagittal suture to
close by 30-40 years (posterior one third), 40-
50 years (anterior one third) and 50-60 years
(middle one third),.
• Coronal suture which fuses between 40-50
years (lower part), and 50-60 years (upper
part),
• Temporal suture (around 60 years)
• In general, suture closure occurs a little later in
females than in males.
 Symphyseal Surface of Pubis
• „ The pubic symphyseal face in the young is
characterized by an undulating surface, such
as the crenulated surface of a typical non-
fused epiphyseal plate. „
• This surface undergoes a regular progressive
change from 18 years onwards. „ It is the best
single criterion for determining age-at death
for individuals from third to fifth decade.
• „ „ Various features that are noted on the
symphyseal surface—ridges and furrows,
dorsal margin, ventral bevelling, lower
extremity, ossific nodule, upper extremity,
ventral rampart, dorsal plateau and
symphyseal rim.
 Age determination from pubic symphysis (in males)
Age Features
< 20 years Compact bone near its surface
About 20 Surface markedly irregular/uneven
years Š
25–40 years Ridges runs transversely across articular surface
Š Ridges gradually disappear
surface has granular appearance
Š Outer and inner margins completely defined
40+(Early Oval smooth surface with raised upper and lower ends
5 t h decade)
Late 5th Narrow beaded rim develops on margin
decade
50+(6th Erosion of surface and breakdown of ventral margins
decade)
60+(7th Surface becomes irregularly eroded
decade)
 Age Estimation by Mandible
[Link]. Feature Infancy Adult Old age
1. Body Shallow Thick and long Shallow

2. Ramus Short, oblique, Less obtuse angle Obtuse angle

forms obtuse with body
angle with body (about 140°)
3. Mental Opens near the Opens midway Opens near the
foramen lower margin and between upper and alveolar margin
directed forwards lower margins and
directed horizontally
backwards
4. Condyloid At a lower level Elongated and Neck is bent
process than coronoid projects above backwards
process coronoid process
 Medico-legal importance of Age
• Evidence: Competency for giving evidence depends upon
understanding, but not on age. A child of any age can give
evidence, if the court is satisfied that the child is truthful
(Sec. 118 IEA).
• „Criminal abortion: A woman who has passed the
childbearing age cannot be charged of procuring criminal
abortion. „
• Identification: An approximate age is important in any chain
of identity data. „
• Impotence and sterility: A boy is sterile though not impotent
before puberty; woman becomes sterile after menopause.
Age Medico-legal importance
3rd lunar month Till this duration, decision for termination of pregnancy can be taken by one
(12 weeks of doctor
pregnancy)
5th lunar month Maximum period of gestation for use of the indication of MTP Act. Above this
(20 weeks of age, termination is only on therapeutic grounds.
pregnancy)
7 months (28 Fetus is considered to be viable. Fetus born after this period, if it does not
weeks of show any sign of life, is termed stillborn fetus (medically). 10th lunar month
pregnancy) Fetus at this stage is a f
5 years Custody of a minor who is below 5 years is with the mother
7 years Below child is not responsible for his criminal act, as he does not understand the
this age, nature and consequences of his act (Sec. 82 IPC)
7–12 years Criminal responsibility: A child may or may not be held responsible
for his act by the court, depending upon whether the child has
attained sufficient maturity to understand the nature and
consequence of the act (Sec. 83 IPC).
Age Medico-legal importance

10 years If a child below this age is removed from his lawful guardian for purpose of robbing
movable property from his/her possession, it will amount to kidnapping (Sec. 369
IPC).
12 years Š A child under 12 years cannot give valid consent to suffer any harm which may
occur from any act done in good faith and for his benefit (Sec. 89 IPC). A child above
this age can give valid consent for examination (including medico-legal) and
treatment (except invasive procedures and operations).
14 years Employment: According to the Factory Act, a person below this age is a
child and cannot be employed in factory jobs. Child under the age of 14
can work in ‘non-hazardous industries’
15 years •Š Sexual intercourse even with wife, below this age amounts to rape
• A person above 15 years of age can be employed in a factory like an
adult, if he has a fitness certificate from a doctor.
16 years Š Taking away a male under this age without consent of guardian amount
to kidnapping.
17 years ŠŠ A juvenile or child over this age but, 18 years, would stay in the after-
care organization till he attains the age of 20 years
18 years ŠStatutory rape: Intercourse with a girl below this age, irrespective of
whether with or without her consent amounts to rape.
18 years Š Judicial punishment: Below this age, an offender is juvenile and is tried in
juvenile court and if convicted, sent to reformatory school (no imprisonment
or death sentence). Š
Age of majority except when the individual is under guardianship of the court.
Š Age of marriage for females.
Š Can cast vote, Minimum age for entering a government service

Mentally sound person can make a valid will (testamentary capacity). Š Taking
out or enticement of a girl below this age from custody of her guardian
amounts to kidnapping. Š
Kidnapping a boy or girl below this age for purpose of begging is punishable
with imprisonment of 10 years with or without fine..
Š A pregnant female can give valid consent for termination under the MTP Act.
Š A person can authorize the removal of organ from his/her body for
therapeutic purposes under the Transplantation of Human Organs Act.
If wife below this age brings a case of offence under Sec. 376 IPC (sexual
intercourse by a man with his own wife), the court with not take cognizance
21 years Š Age of marriage for males.
Š If a girl below this age is ‘imported’ to India from foreign country for
the purpose of illicit intercourse, the act amounts to kidnapping (Sec.
366 B IPC).
Š Person under the guardianship of the Court of Wards attains majority
25 years Š Age for contesting membership of Parliament and other legislative
bodies. Š
Š According to Punjab Excise Act, a person below this age cannot buy
and consume liquor.
35 years Š Minimum age for appointment as President, Vice-President and
Governor of States in India
Prenatal diagnostic tests/procedures cannot be conducted if the
pregnant female is below this age as per the PCPNDT Act
55–65 years Age of retirement from services under the government, Statutory
bodies, autonomous bodies/institutes or from judiciary services.
 Poroscopy
• The pappipalry ridges of epidermis are studded
with minute pores through sweats exudes out in
life.
• The number of pores, as well as their size, shape,
and site in a given length of a ridge vary from
person to person and are quite individualistic. In
fact, they are as reliable as the minutiae of the
ridges. This method of identification introduced by
Edmund Locard, utilising the study of pores is
called poroscopy.
• Poroscopy further enhances the reliability of
la tent fingerprints especially in cases of
partial fin gerprints where the usual
comparison of minu tiae cannot be resorted
to.
• Since 9 to 18 pores (per mm) are present in a
ridge, and each is unique in its characteristics,
this method can lead to positive identification.
 FOOTPRINTS (PODOGRAM)
• Impressions of human feet on various substrates have
been studied and have been found to be quite
individualistic with reference to dermatoglyphics,
various measurements, and also the morphological
analysis.
• Dermatoglyphics or the ridge pattern, if clearly visible
on the substrate against a contrasting back ground, is
highly individualistic. The comparison of the footprints
of the suspect with the test print can be carried out in
the same way as in the case of fingerprints. Latent
prints are also developed in the same way.
• In the absence of ridge patterns, as happens
often in substrates such as soil, sand, etc., the
measurements like length and width of the foot,
length and width of toes, toe pads, the angles of
declination from each toe, and from the ball to its
juncture with the arch, etc., aid in distinguishing
the footprints of one individual from another.
• It has been estimated that stature of an individual
constitutes 15% ratio of foot length, i.e...
• Stature= Maximum foot length
0.15
• The weight of a person can also be estimated by studying
the foot outline ball width. It is around 60.5% ratio of the
foot outline width in case of males above 14 years, and
around 67% ratio in case of females above 14 years.
• In the case of a walking footprint, i.e., if a series of
footprints are available, it is possible to relate them with
the gait pattern of the suspect. The weight distribution,
length of the stride, and presence of abnormalities can
be studied.
• Footprints are recorded by photography or by making
casts.
 Application of Footprint
• When recovered at crime scenes or on items of evidence,
sole and toe impressions are used in the same manner as
finger and palm prints to effect identification.
• Footprints of infants, along with thumb or index
fingerprints of mothers, are still commonly re corded in
hospitals to assist in verifying the identity of infants.
• It is not uncommon for military records of flight personnel
to include barefoot inked impressions. Friction ridge skin
protected inside flight boots tends to survive the trauma
of a plane crash (and accompanying fire) better than
fingers.
 Scar Marks
• A scar is an acquired defect widely accepted as a marker of
identification. The size, shape, and location of a scar can aid in
positive identification, especially if it is unusual or unsightly.
• A scar is the result of a repair mechanism to an injury involving
the dermis of the skin. It is covered by epithelium and is devoid
of pigmentation, sweat glands, and hair follicles.

• Apart from aiding in identification, a scar can also give

information regarding:
– the nature of the injury, and
– the causative agent.
• The size and shape of a scar will be
approximately the size and shape of the
original wound. Hence the nature of injury, as
to whether it is an incised, lacerated, stab
wound, etc., can be made out, which in turn
can help predict the type of the weapon used
to produce the injury.
• The age of a scar usually correlates well with
the time of infliction of the injury.
 CHEILOSCOPY
• Lip prints are similar to fingerprints and footprints in that
individual characteristics are used for identification.
• The creases on the vermilion border of the lips, which appear as
white areas in lip prints, and the raised reddish areas outlined by
these creases, which appear as dark areas, are analogous to the
furrows and ridges of friction ridge skin. The creases on the
vermilion border are also referred to as grooves, furrows, wrinkles
and valleys.
• Lip prints are unique and do not change during the life of a
person. It has been verified that they recover after undergoing
alterations like trauma, inflammation and diseases like herpes,
and that the disposition and form of the furrows does not vary
with environmental factors
• The lip prints of parents and children and
those of siblings have shown some similarities,
which can help in establishing relationships to
a limited extent.
• It has also been suggested that variations in
pat terns among males and females could help
in sex determination
• Cheiloscopic patterns are classified as:
– Linear: Lines are predominant
– Bifurcate: Bifurcation of lines is dominant
– Reticular: Lines cross each other
• Apart from these class characteristics, 24
individual properties are distinguished in the
same manner as the minutiae in the
fingerprints.