Chapter 5

Data Collection and

Analysis

Dec 16, 2024 1

Measurement & Scaling
 Measurement is process of assigning
numbers to objects or observations,
 It is a process of mapping aspects of a
domain onto other aspects of a range
according to some rule of correspondence.
 measuring such things as social
conformity, intelligence, or marital
adjustment is much less obvious and
requires much closer attention than
measuring physical weight, biological age
or a person’s financial assets.

Dec 16, 2024 2

Measurement scales
Three characteristics:
Numbers are ordered. One number is
less than, greater than, or equal to
another number.
Differences between numbers are
ordered. The difference between any
pair of numbers is greater than, less
than, or equal to the difference between
any other pair of numbers.
The number series has a unique
origin indicated by the number zero.
Dec 16, 2024 3
Classification of Measurement
scales
1. Nominal Scales:
 recognized as labels only and have no
quantitative value
Examples can be respondents’ marital
status, gender, students’ Id number, etc.
2. Ordinal Scales:
a statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’
measure of central tendency for ordinal
scales is the median
Examples of ordinal scales include opinion
or preference scales.
Dec 16, 2024 4
Contd..
3. Interval Scales:
 concept of equality of interval (the distance
between 1 and 2 equals the distance
between 2 and 3)
 Centigrade and Fahrenheit temperature
scales are other examples of classical interval
scales
4. Ratio Scales
 It represents the actual amounts of a variable
 Money values, population counts, distances,
return rates, weight, height, and area can be
examples for ratio scales.

Dec 16, 2024 5

Tests of Sound Measurement

Sound measurement must meet the tests

of validity, reliability and practicality
Validity refers to the extent to which a
test measures what we actually wish to
measure.
Reliability has to do with the accuracy
and precision of a measurement
procedure ...
Practicality is concerned with a wide
range of factors of economy,
convenience, and interpretability ...”

Dec 16, 2024 6

Test of Validity
 indicates the degree to which an instrument measures
what it is supposed to measure
Three types of validity
 (i) Content validity is the extent to which a measuring
instrument provides adequate coverage of the topic -
using a panel of persons & no numerical way to express it
 (ii)Criterion-related validity relates to our ability to predict
some outcome or estimate the existence of some current
condition
Qualities:
 Relevance: judge to be the proper measure
 Freedom from bias: each subject an equal opportunity to
score well
 Reliability: stable or reproducible
 Availability: criterion must be available.)

Dec 16, 2024 7

Criterion-related validity is a
broad term
(i) Predictive validity
refers to the usefulness of a test in
predicting some future performance
(ii) Concurrent validity.
refers to the usefulness of a test in closely
relating to other measures
 Criterion-related validity is expressed as
the coefficient of correlation between test
scores and
 some measure of future performance or
between test scores and scores on another
measure
Dec 16, 2024 8
3. Construct validity
 degree that it confirms to predicted correlations
with other theoretical propositions.
 degree to which scores on a test can be
accounted for by the explanatory
 constructs of a sound theory.
 For determining construct validity, we associate
a set of other propositions with the results
received from using our measurement
instrument.
 If measurements on our devised scale correlate
in a predicted way with these other
propositions, we can conclude that there is
some construct validity
Dec 16, 2024 9
2. Test of Reliability

measuring instrument is reliable if it

provides consistent results.
Reliable measuring instrument does
contribute to validity, but a reliable
instrument need not be a valid
instrument.
For instance, a scale that consistently
overweighs objects by five kgs., is a
reliable scale, but it does not give a valid
measure of weight. But the other way is
not true i.e., a valid instrument is always
reliable.
Dec 16, 2024 10
Two aspects of
reliability
stabilityand equivalence deserve
special mention.
The stability aspect is concerned
with securing consistent results with
repeated measurements of the same
person and with the same instrument.
The equivalence aspect considers
how much error may get introduced
by different investigators or different
samples of the items being studied.

Dec 16, 2024 11

3. Test of Practicality

 measuring instrument can be judged in terms of

economy, convenience and interpretability
 Convenience test suggests that the measuring
instrument should be easy to administer
 Interpretability consideration is specially
important when persons other than the
designers of the test are to interpret the results.
 The measuring instrument, in order to be
interpretable, must be supplemented by
(a) detailed instructions for administering the
test; (b) scoring keys; (c) evidence about the
reliability and (d) guides for using the test and
for interpreting results.
Dec 16, 2024 12
Scaling
 Scaling describes the procedures of
assigning numbers to various degrees of
opinion, attitude and other concepts.
 This can be done in two ways viz.,
 (i) making a judgement about some
characteristic of an individual and then
placing him directly on a scale that has
been defined in terms of that
characteristic and (ii) constructing
questionnaires in such a way that the
score of individual’s responses assigns
him a place on a scale.
Dec 16, 2024 13
Dec 16, 2024 14
comparative scaling
In the respondent is asked to
compare one object with
another.
The comparative scales can further
be divided into the following four
types of scaling techniques:
(a) Paired Comparison Scale,
(b) Rank Order Scale,
(c) Constant Sum Scale, and
(d) Q-sort Scale.
Dec 16, 2024 15
(a) Paired Comparison Scale:

This is a comparative scaling

technique in which a respondent is
presented with two objects at a
time and asked to select one object
according to some criterion. The
data obtained are ordinal in nature.
For example, there are four types of
cold drinks - Coke, Pepsi, Sprite, and
Limca. The respondents can prefer
Pepsi to Coke or Coke to Sprite, etc.
Dec 16, 2024 16
(b) Rank Order Scale
This is another type of comparative scaling
technique in which respondents are presented
with several items simultaneously and asked to
rank them in the order of priority.
This is an ordinal scale that describes the
favoured and unfavoured objects, but does not
reveal the distance between the objects.
The resultant data in rank order is ordinal
data.
This yields better results when direct
comparison are required between the given
objects.

Dec 16, 2024 17

Dec 16, 2024 18
(c) Constant Sum
Scale:
In this scale, the respondents are asked
to allocate a constant sum of units such
as points, rupees, or chips among a set of
stimulus objects with respect to some
criterion.
For example, you may wish to
determine how important the attributes
of price, packaging, cleaning power, and
lather of a detergent are to consumers.
Respondents might be asked to divide
a constant sum to indicate the relative
importance of the attributes.
Dec 16, 2024 19
Dec 16, 2024 20
(d) Q-Sort Scale:
This is a comparative scale that uses a rank
order procedure to sort objects based on
similarity with respect to some criterion.
The important characteristic of this
methodology is that it is more important to
make comparisons among different responses of
a respondent than the responses between
different respondents.
Therefore, it is a comparative method of
scaling rather than an absolute rating scale.
In this method the respondent is given
statements in a large number for describing the
characteristics of a product or a large number of
brands of a product. Dec 16, 2024 21
Dec 16, 2024 22
II. Non-Comparative
Scales
In non-comparative scaling respondents need
only evaluate a single object. Their evaluation
is independent of the other object which the
researcher is studying.
The non-comparative scaling techniques can
be further divided into:
(a)Continuous Rating Scale, and
(b)Itemized Rating Scale.

Dec 16, 2024 23

(a)Continuous Rating Scales
:
 Itis very simple and highly useful.
 In continuous rating scale, the respondent’s
rate the objects by placing a mark at the
appropriate position on a continuous line
that runs from one extreme of the criterion
variable to the other.
 Example : Question: How would you rate the
TV advertisement as a guide for buying?

Dec 16, 2024 24

Continuous Rating Scales :
It is very simple and highly useful. In continuous
rating scale, the respondent’s rate the objects by
placing a mark at the appropriate position on a
continuous line that runs from one extreme of the
criterion variable to the other.

Example :
Question:How would you rate the TV
advertisement as a guide for buying?

Dec 16, 2024 25

(b) Itemized Rating Scales :

Itemized rating scale is a scale having numbers or

brief descriptions associated with each category.
The categories are ordered in terms of scale
position and the respondents are required to select
one of the limited number of categories that best
describes the product, brand, company, or product
attribute being rated.
Itemized rating scales are widely used in marketing
research.
Itemised rating scales is further divided into
three parts,
namely
(a) Likert scale,
(b) Semantic Differential Scale, and
(c) Stapel Scale. Dec 16, 2024 26
The itemised rating scales can be in the
form of : (a) graphic, (b) verbal, or (c)
numeric as shown below :

Dec 16, 2024 27

Dec 16, 2024 28
Dec 16, 2024 29
(a) Likert Scale:
Likert,is extremely popular for measuring
attitudes, because, the method is simple to administer.
With the Likert scale, the respondents indicate their own
attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or
disagree with carefully worded statements that range
from very positive to very negative towards the attitudinal
object.
Respondents generally choose from five alternatives
(say strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree,
disagree, strongly disagree).
A Likert scale may include a number of items or
statements.
Disadvantage of Likert Scale is that it takes longer time
to complete than other itemised rating scales because
respondents have to read each statement.
Despite the above disadvantages, this scale has several
advantages. Dec 16, 2024 30
Dec 16, 2024 31
(b) Semantic Differential
Scale
This is a seven point rating scale with end points
associated with bipolar labels (such as good and
bad, complex and simple) that have semantic
meaning.
It can be used to find whether a respondent has a
positive or negative attitude towards an object.
It has been widely used in comparing brands,
products and company images. It has also been
used to develop advertising and promotion
strategies and in a new product development study.

Dec 16, 2024 32

Dec 16, 2024 33
(c) Staple Scale:
The Stapel scale was originally developed to
measure the direction and intensity of an
attitude simultaneously.
Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a single
adjective as a substitute for the Semantic
differential when it is difficult to create pairs of
bipolar adjectives.
The modified Stapel scale places a single
adjective in the centre of an even number of
numerical Values.

Dec 16, 2024 34

Dec 16, 2024 35
Dec 16, 2024 36
Selection of an appropriate
scaling technique
ASome significant issues are:
1) Problem Definition and Statistical Analysis,
2) The Choice between Comparative and Non-
comparative Scales,
3) Type of Category Labels,
4) Number of Categories,
5) Balanced versus Unbalanced Scale, and
6) Forced versus Non-forced Categories

Dec 16, 2024 37

Sampling design
A researcher must prepare a
sample design for his study
i.e. he must plan how a sample
should be selected and of what
size such a sample would be.
 Sample design is determined
before data are collected.

Dec 16, 2024 38

 Need For Sampling
 The following points summarize the benefits of studying
samples.
1. There could be resource (time, finance, manpower, etc.)
limitations which would make it difficult to study the whole
population.
2. In some cases, tests may be destructive. For example,
when we test the breaking strength of materials, we must
destroy them
3. Sampling provides much quicker results than does a
census. When the time between the recognition of the
need of information and the availability of that information
is short, sampling helps not to miss the information.
4. Sampling is the only process possible if the population is
infinite.
5. There is also an argument that the quality of a study is
often better with sampling than with a census.
Dec 16, 2024 39
 STEPS IN SAMPLING DESIGN

 While developing a sample design, the researcher

must pay attention to the following points.
 Type of universe:
 The first step in developing any sample design is to
define the universe. The universe can be finite or
infinite.
 In finite universe, the number of items is certain.
 Examples can be the population of a city, the number
of workers in a factory, etc.
 In infinite universe, the number of items is infinite.
 Examples for an infinite universe can be listeners of a
specific radio program, number of stars in the sky,
etc.
Dec 16, 2024 40
 STEPS IN SAMPLING DESIGN

Sampling Unit: A decision has to be

taken concerning a sampling unit before
selecting sample.
◦ Sampling unit may be a geographical one
such as district, kebele, village, etc.,
◦ A social unit such as family, school, etc., or
it may be an individual.
Source list: It contains the names of all
items of a universe (for finite universe).
A source list should be comprehensive,
correct, reliable and appropriate.
Dec 16, 2024 41
 STEPS IN SAMPLING DESIGN
Size of sample:
The size of sample should neither be
excessively large, nor too small. It should be
optimum.
A researcher must take in to consideration
◦ the size of population variance,
◦ the parameter of interest in the research study,
and
◦ budgetary constraint.
Parameters of interest: In determining the
sample design, one must consider the
question of the specific population
parameters which are Dec
of16,interest.
2024 42
Sample Size Calculation-
Population is infinite

 n: the desired sample size

 z: the standard normal deviate usually set at
1.96 (which
corresponds to the 95% confidence level)
 p: the proportion in the target population to
have a
specific characteristic. If no estimate available set at
50% (or 0.50)
 q:1-p
 d: absolute precision or accuracy, normally set
at 0.05.

Dec 16, 2024 43

Sample size calculation when population
is finite – Confidence level approach
There are two measures that affect
the accurateness of the data.
First of all there is the margin of error
(or confidence intervals). In short,
this is the positive and negative
deviation you allow on your survey
results for the sample.
Second there is the confidence level.
This tells you how often the percentage
of the population that lies within the
boundaries of the margin of error.
Dec 16, 2024 44
Dec 16, 2024 45
 STEPS IN SAMPLING DESIGN
Budgetary constraint:
Cost considerations, from practical point of view,
have a major impact upon decisions relating to
not only the size of the sample but also to the
type of sample.
Sampling procedure:
Finally, the researcher must decide the type of
sample he will use.
He must decide about the technique to be used
in selecting the items for the sample.
the researcher must select that design which, for
a given sample size and for a given cost, has a
smaller sampling error. Dec 16, 2024 46
 Characteristics of a good sample
design:
Sample design must
◦ result in a truly representative sample
◦ result in small sampling error
◦ be feasible in the context of funds available
for the research study
◦ must enable to control the systematic bias
in a better way
◦ be such that the results of the sample
study can be applied, in general, for the
universe with a reasonable level of
confidence. Dec 16, 2024 47
Dec 16, 2024 48
 Types of Sample Designs

Sample designs are basically of two types:

Probability sampling is based on the concept
of random selection,
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Complex random sampling

Non-probability sampling is non-random

selection.
◦ a) Judgment (purposive) sampling –
◦ b) Convenience (accidental) sampling –
◦ c) Quota sampling
◦ d) Referral ( Snow ball) Sampling:
Dec 16, 2024 49
 Simple Random Sampling

Random sampling needs a ‘sampling

frame’ or a ‘sampling unit’, i.e. complete
and up-to-date list of all members of the
population.
Simple random sampling gives:
A. each element in the population an equal
probability of getting into the sample; and
all choices are independent of one another
B. each possible sample combination has an
equal probability of being chosen.
Dec 16, 2024 50
 Example
If a finite population consists of 4 elements
(say a, b, c, d) i.e. N=4.
Suppose that we want to take a sample of
n=2 from it.
Then there are possible distinct
4
C2 6
samples of the required size, and they
consist of the elements ab, ac, ad, bc, bd,
and cd.
 If we choose one of these samples in such
a way that each has a probability 1/6 of
being chosen,
 Dec 16, 2024 51
Examples
With regard to how to take a
random sample, we can use a
lottery method. This verifies our
earlier calculation.
Another method of selecting
random samples is to use random
number tables.

Dec 16, 2024 52

Complex random sampling
Probability sampling under
restricted sampling techniques
may result in complex random
sampling designs. It is sometimes
also called ‘mixed sampling
designs’.
(i) Systematic sampling
(ii) Stratified sampling
(iii) Cluster sampling
Dec 16, 2024 53
 (i) Systematic sampling
An element of randomness is introduced into this kind
of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the
unit with which to start. The following steps will help:
a) Assign a sequence number to each member of the
population.
b) Determine the skip interval by dividing the number of
units in the population by the sample size. I=P/S
where I is skip interval, P is population size, and S is
sample size.
c) Select a starting point in a random digit table (it must
be between 1 and I).
d) include that item in a sample and select every ith item
there after until total sample has been selected.

Dec 16, 2024 54

 Example
 if we want to take 20 samples from a population of
100 members,
 our skip interval is 5 (i.e 100/20).
 Our starting point must be selected randomly from
the interval 1 to 5.
 Then every fifth item will be our sample.
 If our starting point is 2, then our sample must
include members with sequence numbers of 2, 7, 12,
17, 22, 25, …, 97.
 The advantage of this sampling technique is the
samples will spread evenly over the entire
population. It is also an easier and less costly method
of sampling and can be conveniently used even in
case of large [Link] 16, 2024 55
 (ii) Stratified sampling:
Ifa population from which a sample is to be drawn
does not constitute a homogeneous group,
stratified sampling is generally applied.
The basic steps for stratified sampling are:
Divide the population to be surveyed in to strata
of similar study units or into areas with which
similar social, environmental, or economic
conditions exist.
Make a separate and complete list of the stratum
and from each stratum draw a separate random
sample of study units using these lists.
A similar survey is then done on the sample of
study units in each of the strata i.e. the same
Dec 16, 2024 56
(ii) Stratified sampling:

Advantages of stratified sampling

are:
 (i) more reliable information is
obtained for the same sample
size if the population is stratified
than they are for the population
as a whole.
 (ii) Comparisons between strata
are easy. This is so because a
separate but similar survey is
Dec 16, 2024 57
 Example
Suppose we want to take a sample of size n=30 to be drawn
from a population of size N=800 which is divided into three
strata of size N1=400, N2=240, and N3=160. ( Proportionate
Sampling design)
The sample size for stratum with N1=400 is
n1=30(400/800)=15.
The sample size for stratum with N2=240 is
n2=30(240/800)=9.
 The sample size for stratum with N3=160 is
n3=30(160/800)=6.
 In cases where strata differ not only in size but also in
variability and is considered reasonable to take larger
samples from the more variable strata and smaller samples
from the less variable strata,
 Dec 16, 2024 58
 (iii) Cluster sampling:

Ifthe total area of interest happens to be a big

one, a convenient way in which a sample can be
taken is to divide the area in to a number of
smaller non-overlapping areas and then to
randomly select a number of these smaller areas
(clusters), with the ultimate sample consisting of
all units in these small areas or clusters.
In cluster sampling, the total population is divided
into a number of relatively small subdivisions
which are themselves clusters of still smaller
units and then some of these clusters are
randomly selected for inclusion in the overall
sample. Dec 16, 2024 59
example
For illustration, consider the
following are the number of
departmental stores in 10 cities:
35, 17, 10, 32, 80, 18, 26, 19, 26,
and 57. If we want to select a
sample of 8 stores, using cities as
clusters and selecting within
clusters proportional to size, how
many stores from each city
should be chosen?
(Use a starting point of 8)
Dec 16, 2024 60
 Comparison of probability sampling
designs
Design Random selection Other characteristics

Simple Sample members Each population element has an equal chance to be selected
random individually from the Disadv.-requires a listing of population elements, -
sampling population expensive and requires more time to implement

Systematic The initial sample member Designation of the initial sample member determines the
sampling is individually selected entire sample.
Disadv. –periodicity within the population may skew the
sample and the results
Stratified Sample members All strata are represented in the sample most frequently by
individually within each of proportional allocation
the subpopulations or strata Disadv. –creating strata on the population is expensive
Cluster Clusters of members All members of a selected clusters are included in the
sampling selected from the larger sample
population of clusters Not all clusters are included
Disadv. –often lower statistical efficiency (more error) due
to subgroups being homogeneous rather than heterogeneous

Dec 16, 2024 61

 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
If economic conditions of people living in a state
are to be studied,
A few towns and villages may be purposively
selected for intensive study on the principle that
they can be representative of the entire state.
Thus, the judgment of the organizers of the study
plays an important part in this sampling design.
In such a design, personal element has a great
chance of entering into the selection of the sample.
Sampling error in this type of sampling cannot be
estimated and the element of bias, great or small,
is always there.
Dec 16, 2024 62
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
a) Judgment (purposive) sampling –
The researcher uses his judgment to select
people that he feels are representative of the
population to have a particular expertise or
knowledge which makes them suitable.
b) Convenience (accidental) sampling -
the most convenience population is chosen,
which may be the researchers friends, work
colleagues or students from a nearby college.
This method is often used to save time and
resources.
Dec 16, 2024 63
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
 c) Quota sampling - The researcher selects a predetermined
number of individuals from different group (i.e. based on age,
gender, education, race, religion and socioeconomic
[Link]).
 This is perhaps the most popular non-probability sampling
method used.
 Quota sampling is useful when a particular group or
characteristics is relatively rare in the population.
 For example, if basis of the quota is college year level and the
researcher needs equal representation, with a sample size of
100, he may select 25 1st year students, another 25 2nd year
students, 25 3rd year and 25 4th year students.
 d) Referral Sampling: this is a non-probability sampling
technique which utilizes some form of referral, wherein
respondents who are initially contacted are asked to supply
the names and addresses of members of the target
population. Dec 16, 2024 64
Data Collection
 When choosing whether to collect quantitative or
qualitative data, the following factors need to be
considered:
 1. The purpose for which the data is required:
quantitative data is necessary if one requires a high
degree of precision or wants to perform statistical
analysis, while qualitative data is useful for providing a
detailed or vivid impression of the issue or characteristic
concerned.
 2. The subject matter: some kinds of subject matter
are relatively easily presented in numerical form, while
others tend to be more appropriately presented in
qualitative form.
 3. The method of data collection: the collection of
quantitative data is based on statistically designed
survey procedures, while the collection of qualitative
data relies primarily on detailed observation or interview.
 4. The method of data presentation: qualitative data
Dec 16, 2024
can often be ‘translated’ into a quantitative form if it can65
Types of Data
 Primary data are those which are collected
afresh and for the first time, and thus
happen to be original in character.
 Its advantage is its relevance to the user, but
it is also likely to be expensive in time and
money terms to collect.
 Secondary data are those which have
already been collected by someone else and
which have already been passed through the
statistical process.
 It is information extracted from an existing
source, probably published or held on a
computer database.
Dec 16, 2024 66
Collection of Primary Data
 Primary data can be collected through
experimentation in experimental research or
through surveys, whether sample surveys or census
surveys.
 An experiment is a special form of research,
which sets out to examine the relationship between
two factors by manipulating one whilst measuring
changes in the other. There are two types of
experiments: Field experiments and laboratory
experiments. In fact, experimentation is a means of
obtaining data with relatively high precision in
measurement of the variables.
 Survey refers to the method of securing
information concerning a phenomenon under study
from all or a selected number of respondents of the
concerned universe.
Dec 16, 2024 67
Types of Survey
A cross-sectional survey collects
data at one time. The researcher can
generalize findings from such one-shot
studies to the sampled population only
at the time of the survey.
A longitudinal survey takes place
over time with two or more data
collections and has the benefit of
measuring change over time. The
following are the types of longitudinal
surveys:
Dec 16, 2024 68
Types of longitudinal
survey
A trend survey is a longitudinal survey in
which a general population is studied over
time. Usually the population is sampled and
random samples are measured.
A cohort survey is a longitudinal survey in
which a specific population is studied over
time.
A panel survey is a longitudinal survey in
which the same sample is measured two or
more times. The samples can represent
either a specific or a general population.

Dec 16, 2024 69

Other Methods of Survey
1. Observation
Observation is the most commonly used
method of data collection especially, in
behavioral studies.
This method could be used both for cross
checking information obtained using other
methods and for understanding processes
which are difficult to grasp in an interview
context.
This method is useful when studying subjects
who are not capable of giving verbal reports
of their feelings for one reason or another.

Dec 16, 2024 70

Types of observation:

 Structured observation: the observer has a clear

definition of the units to be observed, the style of
recording the observed information, the selection of the
pertinent data of observation, etc.
 Non-structured observation: the opposite of what is
mentioned under structured observation
 Depending on the nature of the observer, we can
classify observations into three basic forms:
 Secretive - where the subjects of the study are
unaware that they are being observed
 Non-participant: where the subjects of the study are
aware that they are being observed but the observer
takes no part in the behavior being observed.
 Participant: when the subject and the observer
interact.

Dec 16, 2024 71

2. Interview Method

The interview method of

collecting data involves
presentation of oral-verbal stimuli
and reply in terms of oral-verbal
responses.
 This method can be used
through personal interviews and,
if possible, through telephone
interviews.

Dec 16, 2024 72

a. Personal interviews:
 This method requires a person (interviewer)
asking questions in a face-to-face contact to
the interviewee.
 If the interview is carried out in a structured
way, it is called structured interview. This
involves the use of a set of predetermined
questions and highly standardized
techniques of recording. The interviewer in a
structured interview follows a rigid procedure
laid down, asking questions in a form and
order prescribed.
 As against it, the unstructured interviews
are characterized by a flexibility of approach
to questioning. In unstructured interview, the
interviewer is allowed much greater freedom73
Dec 16, 2024
b. Telephone
interviews:
This method of collecting
information consists in contacting
respondents on telephone itself.
It is not a very widely used
method, but plays important part
in industrial surveys, particularly
in developed countries.

Dec 16, 2024 74

3. Schedules:
data collection through schedules is very
much like the collection of data through
questionnaire, with little difference
which lies in the fact that schedules are
being filled in by the enumerators who
are specially appointed for the purpose.
These enumerators along with schedules
go to respondents, put to them the
questions from the Performa in the order
the questions are listed and record the
replies in the space meant for the same.

Dec 16, 2024 75

Collection of Secondary Data

 Different Central Statistical Authority Publications;

 Different Publications by Regional Governments;
 Various publications by the different Ministries;
 Publications of the National Bank of Ethiopia;
 On-line and Electronic Data Bases;
 Reports and publications of various associations, business
organizations, etc
 Various publications of international, multilateral and non-
governmental Organizations;
 Report of research scholars and consultants;
 Historical documents, archives, maps, photographs,
letters, biographies, autobiographies, diaries,
textbooks, periodicals;
 Popular media (Newspapers, magazines, Radio and
television).

Dec 16, 2024 76

QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN

Questionnaire is a set of
questions asked to the target
respondents.
Both open and close-ended
questions can be used in the
design of the questionnaire to
collect data.
 In questionnaire design the
different types of data which can
be used are; nominal, ordinal,
Dec 16, 2024 77
What is a good questionnaire?

 1. A questionnaire should be such that it can be analyzed.

 2. The questionnaires should begin with an effort to
awaken the respondents’ interest. Important target
questions should be asked in the middle of the opinion
survey.
 3. Early questions should be simple in design, friendly and
easy to respond; on the other hand; they should convey
the theme of the study to the respondent.
 4. All the questions related to personal information (name,
income, phone, address etc) of the respondents should be
either optional or asked in the last section of the
questionnaires.
 5. Open ended questions should be placed in the later part
of the questionnaire and deliberately kept to the minimum.
 6. A pilot test should be conducted to detect the weakness
in the questionnaires designed.

Dec 16, 2024 78

What are open and close-ended
questions?

For open ended questions the

researcher does not provide any
options to answer. Questions are
open to any descriptive response.
Example:
Close ended questions have
definite options and they are
easy to respond

Dec 16, 2024 79

Types of question
/target/pilot
What is a target question?
  It is the relevant question asked to the chosen sample.
  The target questions should be based on the problem
defined, the chosen hypothesis and the objectives of the
research.
Who is the target respondent?
 If the respondent of a questionnaire is knowledgeable about
the respective idea behind the question or an authority over
the subject matter or simply put a part of the relevant sample
chosen, the person is our target respondent.
What is a pilot test?
 The pilot test collect concise data about the research to serve
as a guide to larger study.
  The pilot test thus helps to identify the problem, if any, in the
questionnaire. Once, corrective measures are taken, the
researcher can go ahead with final version of questionnaire.
This questionnaire is now ready to be administered to the full
sample chosen.
Dec 16, 2024 80
Dec 16, 2024 81
Dec 16, 2024 82
Dec 16, 2024 83
Data analysis

STATISTICS: refers to a set of

mathematical procedures for organizing,
summarizing, and interpreting
information.
Researcher uses different statistical
methods or procedures.
procedures can be classified into two
general categories.
The first category, descriptive statistics,
the second general category of statistical
technique is called inferential statistics.
December 16, 2024 84
Important terms

Populations: Population Samples:

A population is Size: From the
the largest group The number of population, we
of people or elements in the select various
things population and elements (or
is denoted by individuals) on
N. which we
Sample Size: collect our
The number of information.
elements in the
sample is called
the sample size
and is denoted
by n.

December 16, 2024 85

Descriptive analysis

discipline of quantitatively
describing the main features of a
collection of data, or the
quantitative description of itself.
used to summarize, organize and
simplify data.
techniques that take raw scores and
organize or summarize them
scores are organized in a table

or a graph
December 16, 2024 86
Descriptive statistics are :-

Frequency distribution - includes

frequency distribution tables, graph,
shapes and stem and leaf display
Measures of Central Tendency -
includes Mean, Median and Mode
Measures of Variability or Dispersion
- include Standard deviation
(Variance), the minimum and
maximum values of variables,
kurtosis and skewedness
December 16, 2024 87
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:

isan organized tabulation of the

number of individuals located in each
category on the scale of measurement.
Frequency distribution takes a
disorganized set of scores and places
them in order from highest to lowest.
Grouping together all individuals who
have the same scores.
can be structured either as a table or a
graph

December 16, 2024 88

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY:

isa statistical measure to

determine a single score that
defines the center of distribution.
Statisticians have developed
three different methods – mean,
median and mode.

December 16, 2024 89

MEAN:

is commonly known as

arthematic average, is
computed by adding all the
scores in the distribution and
dividing by the number of scores.

December 16, 2024 90

MEDIAN:

The second measure of central

tendency is median. The median
is the score that divides a
distribution exactly in half.
Exactly 50% of the individuals in
a distribution have scores at or
below the median.

December 16, 2024 91

MODE:

The final measure of central

tendency is called mode.
 In a frequency distribution the
mode is the score or category
that has the greatest frequency.

December 16, 2024 92

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY
OR DISPERSION
VARIABILITY
Variability provides a quantitative
measures of the degree to which scores in
a distribution are spread out or clustered
together.
The variation or dispersion in a set of
values refers to how spread out the values
is from each other.
The variation is small when the values are
close together.
There is no Variation if the values are the
same.
December 16, 2024 93
December 16, 2024 94
RANGE:

Range is the difference between

the largest (Max) and the
smallest (Min) values.
Range (R) = Max – Min

December 16, 2024 95

Variance:

isa measure that uses the mean as a

point of reference
variance of the data is small when all
observations are close to the mean
variance of the data is large when all
observations are spread from the mean
The variance of the data is zero (no
variation) when all observations have
the same value (concentrated a t the
mean)

December 16, 2024 96

Standard Deviation

December 16, 2024 97

Coefficient of Variation (C.V.):

December 16, 2024 98

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS:

consists of techniques that allow us to

study samples and then make
generalizations about the population from
which they were selected.
It is usually not possible to measure
everyone in the population.
Because population is typically very large,
a sample is selected form population which
represents population.
So by analyzing the results from sample,
we hope to make general statements
about population.
December 16, 2024 99
Two topics in Inferential
analysis
Correlation analysis studies the joint
variation of two or more variables for
determining the amount of correlation
between two or more variables.
Causal (regression) analysis is
concerned with the study of how one or
more variables affect changes in
another variable.
It is thus a study of functional
relationships existing between two or
more variables.
December 16, 2024 10
inferential statistics methods
Hypothesis testing
Correlations and Regression
Chi – square statistics
Repeated measures analysis of
variance
( ANOVA)

December 16, 2024 10

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
 Inferences on population characteristics (or
parameters) are often made on the basis of
sample observations, especially when the
population is large and it may not be possible
to enumerate all the sampling units belonging
to the population.
 Such hypothesis about the population is
termed as statistical hypothesis and the
hypothesis is tested on the basis of sample
values.
 The procedure enables one to decide on a
certain hypothesis and test its significance.
 “A claim or hypothesis about the population
parameters is known as Null Hypothesis and is
written as, H0.”December 16, 2024 10
 Thishypothesis is then tested with available
evidence and a decision is made whether to accept
this hypothesis or reject it. If this hypothesis is
rejected, then we accept the alternate hypothesis.
This hypothesis is written as H 1.
 For testing hypothesis or test of significance we use
both parametric tests and nonparametric or
distribution free tests.
 Parametric tests assume within properties of the
population, from which we draw samples. Such
assumptions may be about population parameters,
sample size, etc.
 In case of non-parametric tests, we do not make
such assumptions. Here we assume only nominal or
ordinal data.

December 16, 2024 10

parametric tests used for
testing of hypothesis
(i) z-test
(ii) t-test
(iii) χ2 test/Chi-square test and
(iv) f-test / ANOVA

December 16, 2024 10

Procedure for testing of hypothesis

 State the null hypothesis as well as the

alternate hypothesis
 Establish a level of significance (prior
to sampling)
 Choosing a suitable test statistic
 Defining the critical rejection regions
and making calculations for test
statistics

December 16, 2024 10

USAGE OF ‘Z’ AND ‘T’ TESTS

 The z-Test is used to measure the difference

between any variable value (x) and the mean of
all variable values or ‘x’ values, which is indicated
by ‘μ’, divided by the standard deviation(s).
 It is based on the normal probability distribution.
 In case of small sample and in cases when
sample variance is taken as population variance
(population variance, being not known) we use t-
test based on t-distribution to judge the
significance of sample mean or significance of
difference between two sample means.
 Normally when sample size is less than 30 we use
t-test.

December 16, 2024 10

CHI –SQUARE TEST / χ2 test
The chi-square test is an
important test amongst the
several tests of significance
developed by statisticians.
Chi-square, symbolically written
as (Pronounced as chi-square), is
a statistical measure used in the
context of sampling analysis for
comparing a variance to a
theoretical variance.
December 16, 2024 10
Chi-square as a non-parametric test

as a test of goodness of fit

as a test of independence

December 16, 2024 10

ANOVA / F- Test

 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is useful technique in

research field. Prof. R.A. Fisher was the first man to
use the term variance and in fact, he was developed
a very elaborate theory concerning ANOVA
 Analysis of variance (ANOVA) enables us to infer
whether population from which we have drawn more
than two samples are having the same mean values.
 By testing the significance of difference between
more than two sample means we make such
inferences.
 To test the equality of variances, we use ‘F’ test. By
comparing the observed ‘F’ value with table value of
‘F’ and analyzing the significance of differences

December 16, 2024 10