MODULE II

Conduction & Breakdown in Pure Liquids

• When the Applied Electric Field is less than 1KV/cm, conductivity
of 10  18 - 10  20 mho/cm are obtained. These are probably due to the
impurities remaining after purification. However, when the fields are
> 100 KV/cm, the current not only increases rapidly, but also
undergo violent fluctuations.
• At very low field, the current is due to the dissociation of ions.
• With Intermediate field, the current reaches a saturation value and at
high fields the current generated because of the field- aided electron
emission from the cathode gets multiplied in the liquid medium by a
Townsends type of mechanism.
• The breakdown voltage depends on the field, gap separation,
cathode work function and the temperature of the cathode.
• The electrons are generated from the cathode by field emission of
electrons. The electrons so liberated gets multiplied by a process
similar to Townsend’s primary and secondary ionization process.
• As the breakdown field is approached, the current increases rapidly
due to the process similar to primary ionization process and also the
positive ions reaching the cathode generate secondary electrons,
leading to breakdown.
• It is seen that if the dissolved gases are electronegative types (i.e.
oxygen) or if the hydrostatic pressure increases, the breakdown
strength increases. This type of breakdown process in pure liquids,
called the Electronic breakdown.
• It involves emission of electrons at fields greater than 100KV/cm.
 Conduction and Breakdown in Commercial
Liquids
• Commercial insulating liquids aren’t chemically pure and have
impurities like gas bubbles, suspended particles, etc.
• These impurities reduce the breakdown strength of these liquids
considerably.
• The breakdown mechanism in commercial liquids is dependent on
the nature and condition of the electrodes, physical properties of the
liquid, the impurities and gases present in the liquid.
• Several theories have been proposed to explain the breakdown in
commercial liquid and they are:
(a) Suspended Particle Mechanism
(b) Cavitation & Bubble Mechanism
(c) Stressed Oil Volume Mechanism
 Suspended Particle Theory
• This explains the breakdown mechanism due to the presence of solid
impurities. They may be present as fibres or as dispersed solid
particles. The permittivity of these particles (ɛ 2) is different from the
permittivity of the liquid(ɛ1).
• If the impurities are spherical of radius(r) and if the applied field is
‘E’ , then the particles experience a force F

• If (ɛ2>ɛ1), force is directed towards areas of maximum stress e.g.

Paper impurities. If (ɛ2<ɛ1), force is directed towards areas of
minimum stress e.g. Gas bubbles
• If the voltage is continuously applied, then this force drives the
particle towards the areas of maximum stress.
• If the number of particles are more, they become aligned due to
these forces and form a bridge like structure between the electrode
gap causing the breakdown between the electrodes.
• If there is a single conducting particle between the electrodes, it will
give rise to local field enhancement and if the field strength exceeds
the breakdown strength of the liquid, local breakdown will occur
near the particle and this will result in the formation of gas bubbles
which may lead to the breakdown of the liquid.
 Cavitation And The Bubble Theory
• It is observed that on many liquids, the breakdown strength depends
strongly on the applied hydrostatic pressure. Means that a kind of
vapour bubble formed is responsible for breakdown. This processes
which are responsible for the formation of vapour bubbles are:
(a) Gas Pockets at the surfaces of the Electrodes
(b) Electrostatic Repulsive Forces between space charges
(c) Gaseous products due to the Dissociation of liquid molecules by
electron collision
(d) Vaporization of the liquid by corona type discharge
Once a bubble is forced, it will elongate in the direction of the
electric field under the influence of electrostatic forces.
• The breakdown occurs when the voltage drop along the length of the
bubble becomes equal to the minimum value on the Paschen’s
curve.
• The breakdown field is given as

where σ is the surface tension of the liquid, ɛ1 is the permittivity of

the liquid, ɛ2 is the permittivity of the gas bubble, ‘r’ is the critical
radius of the bubble assumed as a sphere & Vb is the voltage drop in
the bubble.
• It can be seen that the breakdown strength depends on the initial size
of the bubble which in turn is influenced by the hydrostatic pressure
and temperature of the liquid.
 Stressed Oil Volume Theory
• In commercial liquids, where minute traces of impurities are present,
the breakdown strength is determined by the “Largest possible
Impurity” or “ Weak Link”.
• The electrical breakdown strength of the oil is defined by the
weakest region in the oil namely, the region which is stressed to the
maximum and by the volume of oil included in that region.
• In non uniform fields, the stressed oil volume is taken as the volume
which is contained between the maximum stress (Emax) contour &
0.9Emax contour.
• The breakdown voltage is highly influenced by the gas content in
the oil, the viscosity of the oil and the presence of other impurities.
Effect of Moisture Content on breakdown Strength of Liquid
Dielectric:
Effect of moisture content
 Breakdown In Solid Dielectrics
• Solid dielectrics have higher breakdown strengths compared to liquids
and gases. Two types of solid materials are generally used in practice,
namely, the organic materials, such as paper, wood and rubber, the
inorganic materials such as mica, glass and porcelain and synthetic
polymers such as perspex, PVC, epoxy resins, etc.
• When breakdown occurs, solids gets permanently damaged while gases
fully and liquids partially recover their dielectric strength after the
applied electric field is removed .
• The various breakdown mechanisms can be classified as follows:
(a) Intrinsic or Ionic Breakdown
(b) Electromechanical Breakdown
(c) Failure due to treeing and tracking
(d) Thermal breakdown
(e) Electrochemical breakdown
(f) Breakdown due to Internal discharges
 Intrinsic Breakdown
8
• When voltages are applied only for short durations in the order of 10
seconds, the dielectric strength of a solid dielectric increases very
rapidly to an upper limit called the Intrinsic Electric Strength.
• Intrinsic Breakdown depends upon the presence of free electrons
which are capable of migration through the lattice of the dielectric.
Usually a small number of conduction electrons are present in solid
dielectrics, along with some structural imperfections & small
amounts of impurities.
• The impurity atoms, or molecules, or both act as traps for the
conduction electrons up to certain ranges of electric field and
temperatures.
• When these ranges are exceeded, additional electrons in addition to
trapped electrons are released and these electrons participate in the
conduction process.
• Based on this principle, two types of intrinsic breakdown
mechanisms have been proposed.
1. Electronic breakdown
2. Avalanche breakdown
 Electronic Breakdown
• Intrinsic/ Electronic breakdown occurs in time of the order of10 8
sec, therefore is assumed to be electronic in nature. The initial
density of conduction (free) electrons is also assumed to be large
and electron-electron collisions occur.
• When an electric field is applied, electrons gain energy from electric
field and cross the forbidden energy gap from the valence to the
conduction band. When this process is repeated, more and more
electrons become available in the conduction band, eventually
leading to breakdown.
Avalanche or Streamer Breakdown
• This is similar to breakdown in gases due to cumulative ionization.
• Conduction electrons gain sufficient energy over a certain critical
electric field and cause liberation of electrons from the lattice atoms
by collision.
• Under uniform field conditions, if the electrodes are embedded in
the specimen, breakdown will occur when an electron avalanche
bridges the electrode gap.
• An electron within the dielectric starting from the cathode will drift
towards the anode and during this motion gains energy from the
field and loses it during collisions.
• When the energy gained by electron exceeds the lattice ionization
potential, an additional electron will be liberated due to collision of
the first electron.
• This process repeats itself resulting in formation of an Electron
Avalanche.
• Breakdown will occur, when the avalanche exceeds a certain critical
size.
 Electromechanical Breakdown
• When solid dielectrics are subjected to high electric fields, failure
occurs due to electrostatic compressive forces which can exceed the
mechanical compressive strength.
• If the thickness of the specimen is ‘d0’ & is compressed to a
thickness ‘d’ under applied voltage ‘V’ , then mechanical instability
occurs when (d/d0)= 0.6 or (d0/d)= 1.67
• The highest apparent electronic stress before breakdown
Emax =V/d0
= 0.6((Y)/([Link]))^(1/2)
Where Y= Young’s Modulus
 Thermal Breakdown
• The breakdown voltage of a solid dielectric should increase with its
thickness. This is true only up to a certain thickness above which the
heat generated in the dielectric due to the flow of current determine
the condition.
• When an electric field is applied to a dielectric, conduction current
flows through the material. The current heats up the specimen and
the temperature rises. The heat generated is transferred to the
surrounding medium by conduction through the solid dielectric and
by radiation from its outer surfaces.
• Equilibrium is reached when the heat used to raise the temperature
of the dielectric plus the heat radiated out, equals the heat generated.
The heat generated under the stress ‘E’ is given by:
• Wdc= (E^2)*σ W/cm^3
σ= dc conductivity of the specimen
E 2 f r tan 
Under ac fields, the heat generated, ac 1.8 *1012
W 

where, f= Frequency in Hz
 = Loss Angle of the Dielectric Material
E= RMS value
• The Heat dissipated ( WT ) is given by: WT CV dT  div(kgradT )
dt
Where, CV= Specific heat of the Specimen
T = Temperature of the Specimen
K = Thermal Conductivity of the
Specimen t = Time over which the heat is
dissipated WT
• Equilibrium is reached when Wac (or Wdc) = ,Breakdown
WT
occurs when Wac(or Wdc) >
 Breakdown Of Solid Dielectric In Practice
• Practically breakdown occurs after prolonged operation; e.g.
Breakdown due to tracking in which dry conducting tracks are
formed on the surface of the insulation. These tracks acts as
conducting paths on the insulator surfaces leading to gradual
breakdown along the surface of the insulator.
• Another is Electrochemical breakdown because of chemical
transformations such as electrolysis, formation of ozone etc. Partial
discharges also leads to breakdown of solid insulation.
 Chemical & Electrochemical Deterioration
& Breakdown
• In presence of air and other gases, some dielectric materials undergo
chemical changes when subjected to continuous electrical stresses.
(I) Oxidation- In presence of air or oxygen, materials such as
rubber and polyethylene undergo oxidation giving rise to
surface cracks.
(II) Hydrolysis- When moisture or water vapour is present on the
surface of a solid dielectric, hydrolysis occurs and the
materials lose their electrical and mechanical properties.
(III)Chemical Action- Chemical degradation of insulating
materials occur due to a variety of processes such as chemical
instability at high temperature, oxidation and cracking in the
presence of air & ozone & hydrolysis due to moisture and
heat.
Breakdown Due to Treeing and Tracking
• When solid dielectric subjected to electrical stresses for a long time,
normally two kinds of visible markings are observed on the
materials
(I) The presence of a conducting path across the surface of the
Insulation
(II) Leakage current passes through the conducting path finally
leading to the formation of a spark.
– Tracking is the formation of a continuous conducting paths
across the surface of the insulation mainly due to surface
erosion under applied voltage. Conducting film is usually
formed due to moisture.
• On application of voltage, the film starts conduction, resulting in
generation of heat & the surface becomes dry. So sparks are drawn
damaging the dielectric surface.
• Insulation failure occurs when the conducting channel bridge the
distance between electrodes. This Phenomenon is called ‘Tracking’.
It usually happens in Bakelite, paper and dielectrics made up of
laminates.
• Treeing occurs due to erosion of material at the tips of the spark.
Erosion results in roughening of the surfaces and becomes a source
of dirt and contamination. This causes increased conductivity
resulting in the formation of a conducting path in a tree like
structure. Treeing is observed in capacitors and cables.
• Tracking occurs at very low voltage, whereas treeing requires high
voltage.
 Breakdown Due To Internal Discharges
• Solid Insulating Materials contain voids or cavities within the
medium. These voids are generally filled with a medium of lower
dielectric strength than that of Insulator.
• Hence, the electric field strength in the voids is higher than that
across the dielectric.
• If the field in the voids may exceed their breakdown value,
breakdown occurs.