Dept of AIML

Dept of AIML
  Error is a condition when the receiver’s information does not match the sender’s. Digital
signals suffer from noise during transmission that can introduce errors in the binary bits
traveling from sender to receiver.
 That means a 0 bit may change to 1 or a 1 bit may change to 0.
 To prevent such errors, error-detection codes are added as extra data to digital messages.
This helps in detecting any errors that may have occurred during message transmission.

Types of Errors
• Single-Bit Error

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• Multiple-Bit Error : high-noise or high-interference digital environments.

• Burst Error: When several consecutive bits are flipped mistakenly in digital transmission, it
creates a burst error. This error causes a sequence of consecutive incorrect values.
 Redundancy

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 [Link]
networking/
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 Data Link Controls
Data Link Control is the service provided by the Data Link Layer to
provide reliable data transfer over the physical medium.
The Data link layer provides the coordination among the devices so that no collision occurs.

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 Line Discipline
•Line Discipline is a functionality of the Data link layer that provides the
coordination among the link systems.
•It determines which device can send, and when it can send the data.
ENQ/ACK
Poll/select

•END/ACK
•END/ACK coordinates which device will start the transmission and whether the recipient
is ready or not.
• If the response to the ENQ is positive, the sender will transmit its data, and
once all of its data has been transmitted, the device finishes its transmission
Dept of AIML with an EOT (END-of-Transmission) frame.
• If the response to the ENQ is negative, then the sender disconnects and
restarts the transmission at another time.
• If the response is neither negative nor positive, the sender assumes that the
ENQ frame was lost during the transmission and makes three attempts to
establish a link before giving up.
Dept of AIML
 Poll/Select

The Poll/Select method of line discipline works with those topologies

where one device is designated as a primary station, and other
devices are secondary stations.

Working of Poll/Select
In this, the primary device and multiple secondary devices consist of a single
transmission line, and all the exchanges are made through the primary device even
though the destination is a secondary device.

The primary device has control over the communication link, and the secondary device
Dept of AIML follows the instructions of the primary device.

The primary device determines which device is allowed to use the communication
channel. Therefore, we can say that it is an initiator of the session.

If the primary device wants to receive the data from the secondary device, it asks the
secondary device that they anything to send, this process is known as polling.

If the primary device wants to send some data to the secondary device, then it tells the
target secondary to get ready to receive the data, this process is known as selecting.
 Select
•The select mode is used when the
primary device has something to
send.

•When the P.D wants to send some

data, then it alerts the S.D for the
upcoming transmission by
transmitting a Select (SEL) frame,
one field of the frame includes the
address of the intended secondary
device.

Dept of AIML •When the S.D receives the SEL

frame, it sends an
acknowledgement that indicates
the secondary ready status.

•If the S.D is ready to accept the

data, then the P.D sends two or
more data frames to the intended
secondary device.

•Once the data has been

 Poll
•The Poll mode is used when the
primary device wants to receive
some data from the secondary
device.

•When a primary device wants to

receive the data, then it asks each
device whether it has anything to
send.

•Firstly, the primary asks (poll) the

Dept of AIML first secondary device, if it responds
with the NACK (Negative
Acknowledgement) means that it has
nothing to send. Now, it approaches
the second secondary device, it
responds with the ACK means that it
has the data to send.

•The secondary device can send more

than one frame one after another or
sometimes it may be required to send
ACK before sending each one,
 Flow Control
•It is a set of procedures that tells the sender how much data it can
transmit before the data overwhelms the receiver.

•The receiving device has limited speed and limited memory to store the
data. Therefore, the receiving device must be able to inform the sending
device to stop the transmission temporarily before the limits are reached.

•It requires a buffer, a block of memory for storing the information until
they are processed.
•Stop-and-wait
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•Sliding window
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 Stop-and-wait

•In the Stop-and-wait method, the sender waits for an

acknowledgement after every frame it sends.
•When acknowledgement is received, then only next frame is
sent. The process of alternately sending and waiting of a frame
continues until the sender transmits the EOT (End of transmission)
frame.

ADV:
•The Stop-and-wait method is simple as each frame is checked and acknowledged
before the next frame is sent.
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DIS ADV:
•Stop-and-wait technique is inefficient to use as each frame must travel across all
the way to the receiver, and an acknowledgement travels all the way before the
next frame is sent. Each frame sent and received uses the entire time needed to
traverse the link.
Dept of AIML
 Sliding Window

• A sender can transmit the several frames before getting an

acknowledgement.
• Multiple frames can be sent one after the another due to which capacity of the
communication channel can be utilized efficiently.
• A single ACK acknowledge multiple frames.
• Sliding Window refers to imaginary boxes at both the sender and receiver end.
• The window has a specific size in which they are numbered as modulo-n means that
they are numbered from 0 to n-1. For example, if n = 8, the frames are numbered
from 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,0,1........
• The size of the window is represented as n-1. Therefore, maximum n-1 frames can be
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 Types of framing
There are two types of framing:

1. Fixed-size: The frame is of fixed size and there is no

need to provide boundaries to the frame, the length of
Dept of AIML the frame itself acts as a delimiter.

2. Variable size: In this, there is a need to define the end

of the frame as well as the beginning of the next frame
to distinguish. This can be done in two ways:
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 Multiple Access Control: Enabling Efficient Communication
Multiple Access Control (MAC) protocols are essential in modern communication systems,
allowing numerous users to share a common transmission medium efficiently.
These protocols ensure optimal resource utilization, minimize interference, and maximize
network throughput.

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 1. Random Access Protocol

In this, all stations have same superiority that is no station has more priority than another
station.
Any station can send data depending on medium’s state( idle or busy). It has two features:

There is no fixed time for sending data

There is no fixed sequence of stations sending data
ALOHA
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It was designed for wireless LAN but is also applicable for shared medium.
In this, multiple stations can transmit data at the same time and can hence lead to
collision.
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 Pure ALOHA
Concept:
•Pure ALOHA is a simple protocol where a device can transmit data whenever it has data to
send.
•It doesn’t check if the channel is free before sending, which makes it easy to implement
but increases the chance of collisions.
Process:
1.A device transmits a packet whenever it wants.
[Link] two devices transmit simultaneously, a collision occurs, and both packets are lost.
[Link] device waits for a random amount of time before retransmitting after a collision.
Efficiency:
•Pure ALOHA has a high collision rate due to random access.
•The maximum throughput (successful data transmission rate) is only 18.4% because of
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frequent collisions.

Use Case:
•Suitable for systems where the network load is low, like early radio systems or very basic
networks.
 Slotted ALOHA

Concept:
•Slotted ALOHA improves Pure ALOHA by dividing time into discrete intervals called
"slots," each equal to the time needed to send one packet.
•Devices are only allowed to send packets at the beginning of each slot, reducing the
chances of collision.
Process:
[Link] is divided into slots, and a device can only start transmission at the beginning of a
slot.
[Link] two devices transmit in the same slot, a collision occurs.
[Link] a collision, each device waits for a random number of slots before retransmitting.
Efficiency:
Dept of AIML •Slotted ALOHA is more efficient than Pure ALOHA because it reduces the collision
window.
•The maximum throughput is 36.8%, almost double that of Pure ALOHA.

Use Case:
•Slotted ALOHA is more efficient and is suited for systems with moderate load where time
synchronization can be managed, like early satellite communication systems.
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 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
• Sense the traffic on a channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data.
• It's commonly used in LAN (Local Area Network) technologies like Ethernet.
• CSMA protocols have been foundational in networking, providing effective strategies
for managing network access and minimizing collisions in both wired and wireless
networks. Basic CSMA Mechanism

Carrier Sense (CS):

•A device that wants to transmit data first checks (or "senses") if the channel is free
(i.e., there is no other ongoing transmission).
•If the channel is busy, the device waits and keeps sensing until the channel is free.

Dept of AIML Multiple Access (MA):

•Multiple devices share the same communication channel, and any of them can
attempt to transmit when the channel is sensed as free.

Collision Handling:
•If two devices sense that the channel is free and transmit at the same time, a
collision can still occur.
•The method used to handle collisions depends on the specific CSMA variant.
 1. 1-persistent CSMA
•The device keeps sensing the channel until it finds it free, and then immediately transmits
(with a persistence value of 1).
•If the channel is busy, it continues to listen and tries again as soon as it becomes free.

2. Non-persistent CSMA
Dept of AIML •If the channel is busy, the device waits for a random amount of time before sensing the
channel again.
•This random delay reduces the chance of collisions but increases the waiting time.
 3. p-persistent CSMA
•Used in systems where time is divided into slots.
•When the channel is free, the device transmits with a probability p
• If the data is not transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random time and resumes
the frame with the next time slot.

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4. CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)
•If a device detects a collision during transmission, it immediately stops transmitting to avoid
wasting bandwidth.
•The device then waits for a random backoff time before attempting to retransmit.
•It traditional Ethernet networks, where it helps manage traffic and reduces data collisions in
wired local area networks.
5. CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)
• Wireless networks (like Wi-Fi) where collision detection is challenging.
• Devices use a "backoff" mechanism and a short wait time before transmitting, reducing
the chances of collisions.
 Controlled Access

• It is a method of reducing data frame collision on a shared channel.

• In the controlled access method, each station interacts and decides
to send a data frame by a particular station approved by all other
stations.
• It means that a single station cannot send the data frames unless all
other stations are not approved.
Reservation
• It has Protocol
three :types of controlled access: Reservation, Polling,
•Devices
and TokenwishingPassing.
to transmit data must make a reservation before sending.
•The channel is divided into reservation intervals and data transmission intervals.
•Satellite and cellular networks, where predictable, periodic data transmissions are common.

Polling Protocol:
Dept of AIML • A central controller (e.g., a main computer or access point) polls each device in sequence,
giving each one a turn to transmit.
• Industrial automation systems where a predictable communication sequence is important.

Token Passing Protocol:

• A virtual token circulates within the network, and only the device holding the token
is allowed to transmit.
Token Ring networks (IEEE 802.5) and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) networks,
where predictable and collision-free data transmission is critical.
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 PPP frame is generally required to encapsulate packets of information or data that simply
includes either configuration information or data.
PPP usually contains one additional field i.e. protocol field.

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