Exploring the

Grammar of the
Clause
 Subordination, coordination, and ellipsis
 Subject-verb concord
 Negation
 Independent Clauses
 Dependent Clauses
 The clause is the key unit of grammar. In the simplest case, the chief
elements of the clause (subject, verb phrase, object, predicative and
adverbial) are made of phrases. In subordination, instead, there is a
type of syntactic structure where one clause is embedded as part of
another. For example, clause elements like object or adverbial can be
realized as other dependent clauses or how clauses can be combined
by coordination or simplified by ellipsis.
Devices of elaboration and
condensation
 Coordination, subordination and ellipsis are three aspects of
grammar which are closely interrelated. With coordination, two
clauses are connected, with each having equal status:
- It’s modern but it’s clean.
 Conversely, with subordination, one clause is embedded as part of
another clause:
- Although it’s modern, it’s clean.
 Ellipsis is a device of simplification: it allows to take away words from
the complete clause structure in which their meaning can be taken
«for granted»:
- It’s clean although modern.
- It’s modern but clean.
Subordination and dependent
clauses
Subordination and Dependent
Clauses
Subordination as Clause links
 Subordinators differ in important ways from other clause links. They are like
coordinators, but different from linking adverbials, because they occur in a fixed
position at the front of their clause. However, unlike coordinators, the clause
introduced by a subordinator is ALWAYS a dependent clause and does not necessarily
follow the clause to which it is connected:
- He was screaming because he had to go home.
In the following example we will see how it is possibile to move a dependent clause:
1) I’m still just as afraid of her, although she’s no longer my teacher.
1a) Although she’s no longer my teacher, I’m still just as afraid of her.
But in:
2) She’s no longer my teacher, but I’m still just as afraid of her.
2a) *But I’m still just as afraid of her, she’s no longer my teacher.

 Wh-words are like coordinators in being usually fixed at the beginning of a dependent
clause even though they cover a major syntactic role as subject, object or adverbial.
 Subordination can be detected by:
- An overt link in the form of a subordinator or wh-word
- A non-finite verb phrase introduced by an infinitive, -ing participle or –
ed participle.
 Finite clauses are marked by tense and modality. Finite dependent
clauses have an overt link like a subordinator or wh-word:
- You can drink your orange [if you like]
 Non-finite clauses have no tense and they cannot include a modal
verb. In addition, it’s the non-finite clause itself to signal that the
clause is subordinate:
- [Leaving the road], they went into the deep darkness of the trees.
 Some of the dependent clauses we can encounter:
- Subject:
finite clause: That it would be unpopular with students or colleges was obvious.
infinitive clause: To meet the lady was easy enough.
Ing-clause: Including garlic in the diet can significantly reduce cholesterol.
- Subject Predicative:
Finite clause: That’s what I’ll do tomorrow
Infinitive clause: Their function is to detect the cries of predatory bats.
- Direct object:
Finite clause: She hoped that Joe wouldn’t come in drunk.
Ing-clause: Stephanie disliked living in this unfinished mess.
Infinitive clause: ‘I would like to leave him,’ Olivia said.
- Prepositional Object:
Finite: Well you pay for what you want.
Ing-clause: Okease forgive me for doubting you.
- Object predicative:
Infinitive clause: No one can expect us to sign our own death sentence.
ing-clause: She watched her son George scything the grass.
Ed-clause: I should have got my boot mended.
- adverbial:
Finite: I’m tense; excuse me if I talk too much.
Infinitve clause: I borrowed a portable phone to ring Waterloo.
Ing-clause: She gazed down at the floor, biting her lip.
Ed-clause: I went on waiting, tinged with doubt.
Exercise 1: Recognizing dependent
clauses
 Mark all dependent clauses in the sentences below with brackets [].
 Label each dependent clause as finite or non-finite.
 For finite dependent clauses, circle the word that introduces the
clause.
 Identify the role of the dependent clause in the main clause: subject,
subject predicative, direct object, prepositional complement,
adverbial.

Example: [If a merger bewteen Coopers and Deloitte is successful], it will

become the largest firm in the country.
Finite; adverbial.
1) The fact is that the community needs them.
2) While he was gone, a nurse poked her head through the doorway.
3) Billy didn’t even know whether he was alive.
4) Did she say anything about what happened?
5) Richard Wood, Professor of Surgery, has told Dr. Grant that such
surgery cannot be halted.
6) Our goal is to make their voices heard.
7) To make matters worse, the economy is a merciless juggernaut.
8) After I asked her out she told me that she prefers just my friendship.
9) That they are already struggling troubles Graham Norton.
10) If we remember the most parochial autonomies and loyalties
survive, we may at least say that the development of participant
cultures in some of the emerging nations has not yet been precluded.
11) They fear that, as winter approaches, medical emergencies will spill
over into surgical beds, halting urgent operations.
12) After the pairs discuss these questions, ask them to make up a story
about the topic.
13) ADMAR hopes that its suggestion will be useful for handling
‘nettlesome subordinates’.
Coordination

 Unlike subordination, coordination can link words, phrases or clause:

- No black worth [his] or [her] salt would touch a [black] and [white] merry-
go-round. (Coordination linking words)
- ‘[A fool] and [his money] are soon parted,’ he says. (Coordination linking
phrases.
- [He had even called her parents] and [they didn’t know where she was],
nor [did her friends when he called them] (Coordination linking clauses).
 The coordinators and, but or nor can function as utterance or turn-initial
links in speech functioning – in this case – in the same way of linking
adverbials (however):
A: And you won’t have that problem.
B: But that’s a, that’s a, that’s a different thing. (Turn-initial coordination)
Some special uses of coordinators
 Sentence-initial or turn-initial coordination is most common at the beginning of a turn in
conversation:
A: They started late last year.
B: And what are your academic classes you’re taking next semester, you’re taking the art history
class?
 Coordination tags:
The most common coordination tags are the phrases or something, and everything, and
things/stuff (like that):
1) She uses a food processor or something.
2) He has a lot of contacts and things.
3) They’re all sitting down and stuff.
In contrast to the examples above, the tags or so, and so on, and etc. are mainly associated with
expository writing:
- I waited for a day or so.
- The Libertas catalogue menu offered a choice of six search modes (author and title, title,
subjects, etc.).
 Correlative Coordinators:
The correlative coordinators both…and, either…or, neither…nor are
strongly associated with the written register for their contribute in
adding clarity and precision:
- Symptoms may appear first in either younger or older leaves.
Ellipsis and Structural Condensation

 In linguistics, ellipsis (from the Greek: ἔλλειψις, élleipsis,

"omission") or an elliptical construction is the omission from a clause
of one or more words that are nevertheless understood in the context
of the remaining elements. There are numerous distinct types
of ellipsis acknowledged in theoretical syntax:
1) He squeezed her hand but <he> met with no response. (initial ellipsis
– omitting the subject of the second clause).
2) He and his mate both jumped out, he <jumped out> to go to the
women, his mate <jumped out> to stop other traffic on the bridge.
(medial ellipsis)
3) Perhaps, as the review gathers steam, this can now change. It needs
to <change>. (final ellipsis)
 In situational ellipsis, on the other hand, the missing word is clear from the
situation in which language is used:
- ^ Saw Susan and her boyfriend in Alder weeks ago.
Situational ellipsis usually takes the form of omitting the initial function words
in a clause (e.g. a pronoun subject, an auxiliary verb or the initial article of a
noun phrase). It is a common feature of conversation and in fiction text
imitating the elliptical habits of speech.
 Ellipsis occur in:
- Dependent clauses
- Coordinate clauses
- At the beginning of independent clauses
But they can also occur in more specific cases:
A) Ellipsis in comparative clauses:
Repeated elements in the comparative clause are normally left out (or replaced by a pro-form):
- She looks older than my mother <does>.
One result was that older people made greater head movements than younger people <did>.
B) Ellipsis in question-answer sequences:
A: Have you got an extra exam on Monday?
B: <I’ve got> Two exams <on Monday>.
A: What exams <have you got>?
B: <I’ve got> German, reading and French oral – French oral’s a doddle.
A: Is it <a doddle>?
C) Ellipsis in noun phrases following independent genitives, quantifiers, and semi-determiners:
1) Under Reagan, everything bad that happened was either my fault or Nixon’s fault or Congress’s fault or
some foreigner’s^.
2) How’s everyone’s champagne? Tommy do you want some more^?
3) It gets you from one place to the next^.
 Other forms of condensation:
Pro-forms and pronouns can abbreviate what a person needs to say or write:
Pronoun:
We borrowed the tennis racquets when Bonnie and Steve were here. And we used
them twice I think.
Other pro-forms:
A: Who took that picture?
B: I did.
In other forms of structural condensation there is omission of the subject and
auxiliary verb. This is the case of non-finite clauses:
1) I don’t know what to write about. (Non-finite clause)
1a) I don’t know what I should write about. (Finite clause)
Exercise 2: Ellipsis

 What words have been omitted through ellipsis in the following

examples?
 For each ellipsis, identify the position (initial, medial or final) and the
context (situational or textual)
 In 1-4, the places where words have been omitted are identified by ^-

Example: Supposing we say something we shouldn’t ^.

Say is ellipted; end ellipsis; textual.
2) It rings a bell but I don’t know why ^.
3) I might as well come with you. Can I ^?
4) Your native language is English. ^ Correct?
5) A: K-Mart wouldn’t give a thirty-dollar discount.
B: On what?
A: On a golf cart!
6) What you doing?
Subject-verb concord

 In non-finite clauses, the verb phrase in a clause agrees with the subject in terms of
number and person. With the exception of the verb to be, subject-verb concord is
limited to the present tense and to the choice between the base form (e.g. talk) and
the s- form (e.g. talks). No subject-verb concord with modal auxiliaries, non-finite
verbs, imperatives or the subjunctive since they do not vary for number or person.
 Concord with plurals not ending in –s:
Zero plurals, like sheep, appear to break the concord rule but in fact do not:
1a) [The sheep] is infected by ingesting the mollusk.
1b) In its grassy centre [the dark-wooled sheep] were grazing.
There are also some pronouns and semi-determiners which do not change between
singular and plural like which, who, the former, the latter:
2a) He is beside a rock face [which] is like the loose side of a gigantic mule.
2b) These are the moments [which] are calculable, and cannot be assessed in words.
 In cases of singular forms ending in –s (e.g. billboards, checkers, measles etc.) they
take a singular verb, but nouns denoting fields of study (e.g. mathematics, economics,
politics) allow some variation between singular concord and plural concord:
1) [Politics] whishes to change reality, it requires power, and thus it is primarily in the
service of power.
2) [The oppositionist politics] of the 1970s and early 1980s are over. (modes of behaviour)
 Concord with coordinated subjetcs:
By and:
Subjects noun phrases coordinated by and take plural concord:
- [The anxiety and anger] are reflected in the water.
The subjects may refer to something that can be viewed as a single entity:
- [The anxiety and anger] is then taken away and suddenly erupts in the family
environment, placing stress on other members of the household.
 By or:
Subjects in noun phrases coordinated by or take single concord if both noun phrases are singular:
Check that [no food or drink] has been consumed.
Examples with plural concord also occur occasionally:
I’ll wait until [my sister or mother] come down, and I’ll eat with them.
 Coordination by neither…nor:
Subjects in noun phrases have singular concord where both noun phrases are singular, and plural
concord where both are plural
Neither geologic evidence nor physical theory supports this conclusion.
But neither the pilots nor the machinists appear interested.
 Agreement of prerson:
Coordination of different grammatical persons causes no problem with and, since a plural verb is
used. Where or or neither…nor link different grammatical persons, the verb tends to agree with the
closest noun phrase:
Not one leaf is to go out of the garden until [either I or my chief taster] gives the order.
In many years of service [neither Phillips nor I] have seen anything like it.
 Concord with quantifying expressions:
The indefinite pronouns anybody/anyone, everybody/everyone, nobody/no one and
somebody/someone agree with singular verb forms:
[Everybody]’s doing what they think they’re supposed to do.
[Nobody] has their fridges repaired any more, they can’t afford it.
Singular subject-verb concord even though co-referent pronouns and determiners
may be plural.
Quantifying pronouns such as all, some, any, none, a lot, most can take either
singular or plural concord according to singular or plural reference. If an of-phrase
follows, the NP after of indicates singural or plural concord:
[Some of it] is genuine, some of it all a smoke-screen.
[Most of the copies] are sized in raids.
Yeah all people are equal yet [some] are more equal than others.
 Each and one want singular concord. Both singular and plural forms are found with either
and neither, although the singular form is considered more correct:
[Neither of these words] is much help.
[Neither of us] believe in useless symbols.
Concord patterns also vary with any and none with a traditional preference of the singular:
[None of us] has been aboard except James.
[None of us] really believe it’s ever going to happen.
 Plural names, titles and quotations take singular concord if the reference is to a single
thing (a country, a newspaper, a dish, etc.). The same for measure expressions when
reference is to a single measure (amount, wheight, lenght, time, etc.):
The country can ill afford an operation that would permit others to argue that [the United
States] does not respect international law.
[The New York Times] was, as usual, dryly factual.
[Two pounds] is actually quite a lot.
[Eighteen years] is a long time in the life of a motor car.
 Concord where the subject is a clause wants the singular when the
subject is a finite or non-finite clause:
[Carrying cases, boxes, parcels or packages] was a task only for
servants.
Nominal relative clauses can have plural as well as singular concord:
[What we do know] is this.
[What is needed] are effective regulators.
Exercise 3: Subject-verb concord

 The following text passage was written by an intermediate student of

English as a foreign language.
 Underline all errors of subject-verb concord. In each case, state why
the concord is wrong.
 Note: ignore errors that are not errors of subject-verb concord.
Now, a lot of company exist in all over the world, so big companys has
very strict rules. First, one of company’s rule problem is smoking. It was
that company’s woman is in trouble by smoke. She is non-smoker, and
doesn’t like smoke. But almost all men of her company is smoking, and
she is working same work place. Second, other company’s rule problem
is cosmetics. It’s American problem. A woman don’t like making up
on her face. But a company’s rule is that a woman must make up on her
face, when you are working. They started to employ women consultants
few years ago. The company make them wear beautiful suits.
In summary, everyone want to work comfortable and relax-
Sometimes, we can see that a employee sue his company for illegal
discharge, and then the company say about the company rule. First of
all, all countries have laws and rules, and the nation have to obey the
laws.
Negation: Verbs as operators
 Operator: it is the verb used for clause negation or for forming questions (interrogative clauses).
That means to form negative clause, the negative particle not is inserted after the operator. For
interrogative clauses, the operator is placed in front of the subject noun phrase (subject-operator
inversion):
- The first auxiliary verb in the verb phrase:
They are not forgotten.
The have not been very helpful.
I won’t fail.
- Question formation:
Are you kidding?
Where have you been?
 The copula be
Clause negation:
You’re not pretty.
Question formation:
Are you serious?
 The dummy auxiliary verb do:
- Clause negation:
Well he doesn’t live down there now.
- Question formation:
Where does she live?
 In cases where the operator doesn’t exist (e.g. simple present and
past tense). The dummy operator do is inserted to form negative and
interrogative clauses:
Positive Negative Declarative Interrogative
I looked. I didn’t It makes sense. Does it make
look. sense
Operators alone

 Another function of operators: to omit everything in a clause after the

operator to avoid repetition (final ellipsis):
1 A: You’ve lost some weight since I’ve seen you.
B: I have^, yes.
2 A: You don’t know Murphy’s Law?
B: Yeah, <…> if anything can go wrong, it will^.
Negation
 We have to two main kinds of clause negation: not-negation and no-negation. No negation is
formed with other negative words such as no, nothing, more.
 Not-negation:
The negator not/n’t is added after the operator. If there is no auxiliary verb and the main verb is not
the copula be, the auxiliary verb do has to be inserted as dummy operator:
You can do this but you can’t do that.
I remember it but I didn’t remember where I burned her specifically.
Most interrogative clauses have subject-operator inversion. If not is contracted to –n’t, it is attached
to the operator and comes before the subject:
Couldn’t she get a job like teaching?
Hey why isn’t it no ready?
If not is a full form, it has to be placed after the subject:
Could she not get a job like teaching?
Hey why is it not ready?
Negative imperatives with the copula be are an exception because the be does not serve as the
operator. That’s why do not or don’t is inserted before the verb be:
Don’t be silly.
Don’t be so hard on yourself.
 Ain’t
A very versatile negative contraction, capable of substituting for all
negative contractions of be or the auxiliary have:
‘There ain’t nothing we can do.’ (isn’t)
‘I’m whispering now, ain’t I?’ (aren’t)
‘I ain’t done nothing?’ (haven’t)
 Use and non-use of dummy do in negation.
Have as a lexical verb:
Do-construction: She doesn’t have a dime.
Have as operator: I haven’t a clue what her name was! (old-fashioned)
 The semi-modal have to:
Do-construction: You don’t have to have a conscience.
Have as operator: Oh I whish I hadn’t to go out tonight. (less common)

 Need and dare:

do-construction: They do not need to belong to the same phase.
Auxiliary construction: The details need not concern us here.
No, I daren’t tell her.
Need and dare can act as modal auxiliaries (operator and negation) and as main verbs.
 Used to and ought to:
Do-construction: We didn’t used to see much of it.
He didn’t ought to be doing that sort of job.
Auxiliary construction: Gentlemen used not to have any traffic with him.
So I think I oughtn’t to spend more.
 No-negation:
Negation involving quantifiers can be expressed by no, or by a non-
assertive word – that cames after not - like any following not/n’t:

Negative Words Non-assertive words

Determiners: no, neither Determiners: any, either
Adverbs: neither, nowhere, Adverbs: either, anywhere, ever
never, nor Pronouns: any, either, anybody,
pronouns: none, neither, nobody, anyone, anything
no one, nothing
 When no and not-negation are both possible, there is sometimes a
slight difference of meaning:
1) He is ten years old, he is not a baby.
2) He wasn’t a union member.
3) She was no great beauty.
4) He is no quitter.
 Assertive and non-assertive forms (follow the not)

Assertive Non-Assertive
Adverbs Already Yet
Sometimes Ever
Somewhat At all
Somewhere Anywhere
Still Any more
Too Either
Determiners/ Some Any
Pronouns Somebody Anybody
Someone Anyone
Something Anything
 Although non-assertive forms are particularly associated with negation, they are also used in
other contexts:
- Interrogative clauses
Does anyone ever ring the bell Carrie? (dep)
Wonder if Lucille had any luck selling her house. (indep)
- Conditional clauses:
If there are any problems in performance-related play, we can iron these out.
- Temporal clauses introduced by before:
I was with him before anyone else was.
- Comparative and degree construction:
I can trust you, Babes, more than anybody.
- Implicit negatives:
Most scientists, however, refuse to pay any heed or give any credence to Physical Research.
But I very rarely fry anything away.
 Multiple Negation occurring in the same clause:
Dependent Multiple Negation:
You’ve never seen nothing like it. (You’ve never seen anything like it)
There ain’t nothing we can do. (There isn’t anything we can do)
Independent Multiple Negation is not integrated in the same clause:
No, not tomorrow, she said.
There’s no one to blame not really.
Major Types of Independent Clauses

 A clause that is not part of any larger clause structure. However, they
can be coordinated and include embedded dependent clauses:
- Simple independent clause:
You can give me a cheque.
- Coordinated independent clauses:
He was crying and so I gave him back his jacket.
- Complex independent clause (with one or more dependent clauses):
If you pay too much they’ll give us the money back.
 Speech-act Functional Clause Directing Expressing

Informing Statement Declarative clause SV structure It’s strong

Eliciting Question Interrogative VS structure Is it strong?

clause Wh-word + VS Where is
structure she?
Wh-word Who was
structure there?
Directing Command Imperative clause V structure Be strong!
(no S)
Expressing Exclamation Exclamative Wh-word + SV How good
clause structure she is!
 Declarative Clauses
SV structure, the default type of independent clause. The usually convey information, but they
can also serve other speech-act functions in conversation and fictional dialog like question:
1 A: So he’s left her?
B: She left him.
2 You weren’t happy together? – ‘No’, I said.
 Interrogative Clause
A VS structure combinated with a wh-word. Three main types of independent interrogative
clause:
wh-questions – to elicit missing information
yes/no questions – to ask whether a proposition is true or false
alternative questions – to ask which of two or more alternatives is the case
- Alternative questions (e.g. Do you want one or two?)
 Exclamative Clauses:
A clause type which begins with a wh-word (what or how) and continues with an SV
(subject-verb) pattern:
1) Oh, what a good girl you are.
2) How clever you are, and how beautiful
 Imperative Clauses:
They have a vocative function. Imperative clauses are characterized by the lack of a
subject, use of the base form of the verb and the absence of modal, tense and aspect
markers:
Get off the table.
Don’t forget about the deposit.
Let can be used for imperatives to express a suggestion involving both the speaker and the
addressee:
Well, let’s try this. Let’s see what happens.
Dependent Clauses: Finite
dependent clauses
 Complement clauses (nominal clause):
Similar to noun phrases for their syntactic roles, complement clauses are controlled by a preceding
verb, adjective, noun or preposition. Finite complement clauses are introduced by the subordinator
that or by a wh-word.
- That clauses
That this was a tactical decision (subject) quickly became apparent.
They believe that the minimum wage could threaten their jobs. (direct object)
- wh-clauses:
‘What I don’t understand (subject) is why they don’t let me know anything. (subject
predicative)
Complement clauses can occur within phrases as complements of noun, adjective or preposition:
He was [aware that a Garda Inquiry was being conducted].
There is [a fear that such rules will be over-bureaucratic].
Be [very careful what you tell me]
She was [afraid of what might happen if Michael suddenly turned round and saw her].
 Adverbial Clauses:
They are normally optional elements and for that reason they can be placed at the
beginning, middle or end of the main clause:
If you go to a bank, they’ll rip you off.
That conclusion, it seems, is intolerable. (comment clause with no subordinator)
When the houses were ready, prices of up to £51,000 were quoted.
Finite adverbial clauses are introduced by a subordinator like if, before, when and although.
 Relative Clauses:
Postmodifier in a noun phrase, it serves to expand the meaning and specify the reference of
the head noun. It is introduced by a relativizer with the role of a subject or an object in the
relative clause, in addition to its linking function:
He warned the public not to approach [the men, who are armed and dangerous].
A system is [that part of the world which we are interested in and which we are
investigating].
 Peripheral Clauses:
- Reporting Clauses. A reporting clause introduces somebody’s direct
speech or thought, and it can report who is speaking, who is the
addressee, the nature of speech act and the manner of speaking:
‘Please come too,’ she begged. – ‘I’ll be back when I feel like it,’ he
said without emotion. – ‘I’m sorry,’ she whispered.
- Declarative tags, they have the effect of reinforcing the speaker’s
commitment to the proposition of the main clause:
Yeah I thoroughly enjoyed I did.
He’s alright he is.
Non-finite dependent clauses

 They are less explicit than independent clauses. They lack of tense or modality, no explicit
subject and subordinator:
- Infinitive clauses:
1) Artificial pearls before real swine were cast by these jet-set preachers. To have thought this
made him more cheerful.
2) It’s difficult to maintain a friendship. (extraposed subject)
3) My goal now is to look to the future. (subject predicative)
4) Some of these issues dropped out of Marx’s later works because he considered them to have
been satisfactorily dealt with. (object predicative)
5) A little group of people had gathered by Mrs. Millings to watch the police activities on the
foreshore. (adverbial)
6) They say that failure to take precautions against injuring others is negligent. (noun
complement)
7) It is a callous thing to do. (noun postmodifier)
8) I think the old man’s a bit afraid to go into hospital. (part of an adjective phrase)
 Ing- Clauses:
1) Having a fever is pleasant, vacant. (subject)
2) It’s very difficult getting supplies into Sarajevo. (extraposed subject)
3) The real problem is getting something done about cheap imports. (subject
predicative)
4) I started thinking about Christmas. (direct object)
5) I didn’t come out of it looking particularly well, I know. (adverbial)
6) No-one could rely on his going to bed early last night. (complement of a
preposition)
7) The man making the bogus collection is described as middle aged. (noun
postmodifier)
8) The town is busy taking advantage of its first city challenge victory. (part of
an adjective phrase)
 Verbless Clause, a special type of non-finite clause:
She had also been taught, when in difficulty, to think of a good life to imitate.
Although not a classic, this 90-minute video is worth watching.
Every day, if possible, allot time at your desk to sorting and filing.

 Subjunctive verbs in dependent clauses:

The base form of the verb used where the –s form occurs regularly. It occurs especially in
some dependent that complement clauses or some adverbial clauses:
1) I told her she could stay with me until she found a place, but she insisted [that she pay
her own way].
2) The way in which we work, [whether it be in an office or on the factory floor], has a major
transformation in the past decade.
With regular verbs, the present subjunctive is recognizable only with a singular subject.
My head felt as if it were split open.