Chapter 2:
Structural design
approach
2.1 introduction
• A design philosophy is a set of assumptions and procedures
which are used to meet the conditions of serviceability,
safety, economy and functionality of the structure. Several
design philosophies have been introduced from different
parts of the world. Some of the design philosophies that has
been used by engineers are
1. Working Stress Method(WSM)/ Allowable Stress Design
(ASD)
2. Ultimate Load Method (ULM)
3. Limit State Method(LSM)
The earliest one is working stress method, which was
introduced in 20th century. This is based on linear elastic
theory. This method was used in IS 456 till revision IS
456:2000. In 1950s Ultimate Load method was introduced
which is based on the ultimate load which can be carried out
by material. Its acceptance can be seen in ACI code in 1956
and British codes in 1957 and Indian codes in 1964. The most
recently accepted code of practice is based on Limit State
method. This is used in IS 456 from revision IS 456:2000,
British code CP 110(1973) (now BS 8110(1997)) and ACI
318-71 (now ACI 318-95).
1. Working Stress Method/ Allowable Stress Design
• Working stress method is used for the design of
Reinforced concrete, Steel and Timber structures. The main
assumption in the WSM is that the behavior of structural
material is restricted with in linear-elastic region and the
safety of it is ensured by restricting the stresses coming on
the members by working loads. Thus the allowable stresses
will come in the linear portion (i.e., initial phase) of the
stress-strain curve. Thus a factor of safety was introduced to
the design
“Factor of safety is the ratio of strength of material to the permissible
stress”
2. Ultimate load method
• This is also known as load factor method or ultimate strength
method. In this we make use of the nonlinear region of stress
strain curves of steel and concrete. The safety is ensured by
introducing load factor.
• “Load factor is the ratio of ultimate strength to the service
loads”
• The ULM makes it possible to consider the effects of
different loads acting simultaneously thus solving the
shortcomings of WSM. As the ultimate strength of the
material is considered we will get much slender sections for
columns and beams compared to WSM method.
But the serviceability criteria is not met because of large
deflections and cracks in the sections.
• The fall-back in the method was that even though the
nonlinear stress strain behavior of was considered sections
but the nonlinear analysis of the structural was not carried out
for the load effects. Thus the stress distribution at ultimate
load was just the magnification of service load by load factor
following the linear elastic theory.
3. Limit State Method
This philosophy is an advancement over the traditional design
philosophies. It considers the safety at the ultimate load and
serviceability at the working load, sort of extension of the WSM and
ULM.
“Limit state is the state of impending failure, beyond which a structure
ceases to perform its intended function satisfactorily, in terms of either
safety or serviceability.”
There are 2 types of limit states
1. Ultimate Limit State: It considers strength, overturning, fatigue,
sliding etc.
2. Serviceability Limit State: It considers crack width, deflection,
vibration etc.
2.4 Inputs for structural design
• Then design of concrete structures is generally done within the
framework of codes giving specific requirements for materials,
structural analysis, member proportioning, etc. Specification serves as
a guide for the engineer to arrive at a safe and acceptable design. It is
also a guarantee to the owner that the resulting structure will comply
with basic standards to ensure safety, utility and economy.
The designer doing concrete structures in various disciplines, such as
buildings, bridges, etc., will have to follow closely the relevant design
requirements in the appropriate specifications and design codes as
minimum requirements.
Table 1.1 densities of construction material