ECT425

Biomedical
Instrumentation
Module 1
1.1 PHYSIOLOGICAL
SYSTEMS OF THE
BODY
I. The Cardiovascular System
• The cardiovascular system is a complex closed hydraulic
system
• Performs the essential service of transportation of
oxygen, carbon dioxide, numerous chemical compounds
• Blood cells to maintain optimum environment for
cellular function
• The environment is produced and maintained by the circulation
of blood

• The heart is the power source which provides energy to move

the blood through the body

• At the same time removes waste products — products of the

cells’ metabolism — from the cell

• Structurally, the heart is divided into right and left parts

• Each part has two chambers called atrium and ventricle

• The heart wall consists of three layers:

1. The pericardium, which is the outer layer of the heart,

keeps the outer surface moist and prevents friction as the heart beats

2. The myocardium is the middle layer of the heart. It is the main

muscle of the heart, which is made up of short cylindrical fibres

3. The endocardium is the inner layer of the heart. It provides smooth

lining for the blood to flow
• The blood is carried to the various parts of the body through blood
vessels, which are hollow tubes
• There are three types of blood vessels
• Arteries
• Veins
• Capillaries

• Arteries are thick walled and carry the oxygenated blood away from
the heart
• Veins are thin walled and carry de-oxygenated blood towards the
heart
• Capillaries are the smallest and the last level of blood vessels.
From an engineering point of view,

• the heart which drives the blood through the blood vessels
of the circulatory system (Fig. 1.6) consists of four chamber
muscular pump

• It beats about 72 times per minute, sending blood through

every part of the body
• The pump acts as two synchronized but functionally isolated
two stage pumps.

• The first stage of each pump (the atrium) collects blood from
the hydraulic system and pumps it into the second stage (the
ventricle)

• In this process, the heart pumps the blood through the

pulmonary circulation to the lungs and through the systemic
circulation to the other parts of the body
• In the pulmonary circulation, the venous (de-oxygenated)
blood flows from the right ventricle, through the pulmonary
artery, to the lungs, where it is oxygenated and gives off
carbon dioxide.

• The arterial (oxygenated) blood then flows through the

pulmonary veins to the left atrium.
• In systemic circulation, the blood is forced through blood
vessels, which are somewhat elastic

• The blood flows from the left atrium to the left ventricle and is
pumped through the aorta and its branches, the arteries, out
into the body

• Through the small arteries, the blood is distributed to the

capillaries in the tissues, where it gives up its oxygen and
chemical compounds, takes up carbon dioxide and products of
combustion
• The blood returns to the heart along different routes from
different parts of the body.

• It usually passes from the venous side of the capillaries directly

via the venous system

• The heart itself is supplied by two small but highly important

arteries, the coronary arteries.

• They branch from the aorta just above the heart. If they are
blocked by coronary thrombosis, myocardial infarction follows,
often leading to a fatal situation
• The heart rate is partly controlled by autonomic nervous system and
partly by hormone action

• control the heart pump’s speed, efficiency and the fluid flow pattern

• The circulatory system is the transport system of the body by which food,
oxygen, water and other essentials are transported to the tissue cells and
their waste products are transported away
• The condition of the cardiovascular system is examined by

• haemodynamic measurements
• by recording the electrical activity of the heart muscle
(electrocardiography)
• listening to the heart sounds (phonocardiography)

• For assessing the performance of the heart as a pump,

measurement of the cardiac output (amount of blood pumped
by the heart per unit time), blood pressure, blood flow rate
and blood volume are made at various locations throughout
the circulatory system
II. The Respiratory System
• Respiration is the process of supplying oxygen to and
removing carbon dioxide from the tissues

• These gases are carried in the blood, oxygen from the lungs to
the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs

• The gas exchanges in the lungs are called external respiration

and those in the tissues are called internal respiration
From equipment point of view,

• The respiratory system in the human body (Fig. 1.7) is a

pneumatic system

• In this system, an air pump (diaphragm) alternately creates negative

and positive pressures in a sealed chamber (thoracic cavity) and
causes air to be sucked into and forced out of a pair of elastic bags
(lungs)
• The lungs are connected to the outside environment through a
passage way comprising nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi and bronchioles

• The passage way bifurcates to carry air into each of the lungs
wherein it again subdivides several times to carry air into and out of
each of the many tiny air spaces (alveoli) within the lungs
• Oxygen is taken into the blood from the incoming air and
carbon dioxide is transferred from the blood to the air under
the control of the pneumatic pump

• The blood circulation forms the link in the supply of oxygen to

the tissues and in the removal of gaseous waste products of
metabolism

• The movement of gases between blood and the alveolar air is

basically due to constant molecular movement or diffusion
from points of higher pressure to points of lower pressure.
• An automatic respiratory control centre in the brain maintains
heart pump operation at a speed that is adequate to supply
oxygen and take away carbon dioxide as required by the system

• In each minute, under normal conditions, about 250 ml of

oxygen are taken up and 250 ml of CO2are given out by the
body
• Similar exchanges occur in reverse in the tissues where oxygen
is given up and CO2 is removed.

• The respiratory system variables which are important for

assessing the proper functioning of the system are respiratory
rate, respiratory air flow, respiratory volume and
concentration of CO2 in the expired air
 III. The Nervous System
• The nervous system is the control and communication network
for the body which coordinates the functions of the various
organs

• Rapid communication between the various parts, the effective,

integrated activity of different organs and tissues and coordinated
contraction of muscle are almost entirely dependent upon the
nervous system

• It is the most highly developed and complex system in the body

• The centre of all these activities is the brain (central
information processor or computer) with memory,
computational power, decision making capability and a host
of input output channels.

• Signals from a large number of sensory sensors which detect

pressure, heat, cold, light, sound etc come to the appropriate
parts of the brain, where they can be acted upon
• Similarly, output central signals are sent to specific motion
devices which results in motion or force in response to those
signals

• The brain continuously gets the feedback regarding every

action controlled by the system through associated sensors

• The information is in the form of electrochemical pulses or

nerve action potentials that travel along the signal lines or
nerves
• The nervous system consists of a central and a peripheral part

• The central nervous system is (Fig. 1.8) made up of the

encephalon (brain) and the spinal cord

• The peripheral nervous system comprises all the nerves and

groups of neurons outside the brain and the spinal cord.
The Brain

• The brain consists of three parts, namely, the cerebrum,

cerebellum and the brain stem
1. Cerebrum:
The cerebrum consists of two well demarcated
hemispheres, right and left and each hemisphere is sub-
divided into two lobes:

• frontal lobe and temporal lobe in the left hemisphere and

• parietal and occipital lobes in the right hemisphere

Shown in (Fig. 1.9).

• The outer layer of the brain is called the cerebral cortex

• All sensory inputs from various parts of the body eventually

reach the cortex

• Various areas are responsible for hearing, sight, touch and

control of the voluntary muscles of the body.
• The cerebral cortex is also the centre of intellectual functions

• The frontal lobes are essential for intelligence, constructive

imagination and thought.

• Here, large quantities of information can be stored

temporarily and correlated, thus making a basis for higher
mental functions

• Each point in the motor centre in the cerebral cortex (Fig.

1.10) corresponds to a certain body movement.
• The sensory centre contains counterparts of the various
areas of the body in different locations of the cortex

• The sensory inputs come from the legs, the torso, arms,
hands, fingers, face and throat etc

• The amount of surface allotted to each part of the body is in

proportion to the number of sensory nerves it contains
rather than its actual physical size
• The visual pathways terminate in the posterior part of the
occipital lobe

• The rest of the occipital lobes store visual memories, by

means of which we interpret what we see

• The temporal lobes are also of importance for the storage

process in the long-term memory
• On the upper side of the temporal lobe, the acoustic
pathways terminate making it as a hearing centre

• This is located just above the ears

• Neurons responding to different frequencies of sound input

are spread across the region, with the higher frequencies
located towards the front and low frequencies to the rear of
the ear.
2. Cerebellum:
The cerebellum acts as a physiological microcomputer
which intercepts various sensory and motor nerves to smooth
out the muscle motions which could be otherwise jerky.

• It also consists of two hemispheres which regulate the

coordination of muscular movements elicited by the cerebrum

• The cerebellum also enables a person to maintain his balance.

3. Brain Stem:
The brain stem connects the spinal cord to the centre of
the brain just below the cerebral cortex.

• The essential parts of the brain stem are

(i) Medulla oblongata : which is the lowest section of the
brain stem and contains centres for regulating the work
performed by the heart, the vasomotor centres, which
control blood distribution and respiratory centre which
controls the ventilation of the lungs;
(ii) the pons:
located just above the medulla and protruding somewhat
in front of the brain stem;
(iii) midbrain :
which lies in the upper part of the brain stem;
and
(iv) the diencephalon:
which is located above and slightly forward of the
midbrain. One part of the diencephalon is the thalamus,
which acts as a relay station for sensory pathways to the
cortical sensory centre of the cerebrum.
• In the lower part of the diencephalon is the hypothalamus
which has several vital centres for temperature regulation,
metabolism and fluid regulation

• They include the centres for appetite, thirst, sleep and sexual
drive

• The hypothalamus is important for subjective feelings and

emotions.
 Spinal Cord:
• The spinal cord is a downward continuation of the medulla
oblongata in the brain to the level of first lumbar vertebra

• It consists of a cylinder of nerve tissue about the thickness of the

little finger and has a length of about 38 to 45 cms

• The cord consists of white matter on the surface and gray matter
inside

• The white matter contains fibres running between the cord

and brain only.
Contd…

• The cord containing motor and sensory fibres is responsible for

the link between the brain and the body and reflex action

• In the H-shaped gray matter of the spinal cord are located the
neurons that control many reflexes such as the knee reflex and
the bladder- emptying reflex

• The reflex action is a result of the stimulation of the motor cells

by stimuli brought in by sensory nerves from the tissues
The central nervous system

• It consists of billions of specialized cells about half of which,

called neurons, are functionally active as signal transmitters
while the other half (supporting cells), maintain and nourish
the neurons

• The fundamental property of the neurons is the ability to

transmit electrical signals, called nerve impulses, in response
to changes in their environment, i.e. stimuli

• The central nervous system controls the voluntary muscles of

the body and is responsible for all movements and sensations.
• The basic functional unit of the nervous system is the neuron.
A typical neuron consists of a nucleated cell body and has
several processes or branches (Fig. 1.11)

• The size and distribution of these branches vary greatly at

different sites and in cells with different functions, but the two
main kinds are:
• the axone and the dendrite

• The dendrites normally conduct impulses toward the cell body

and the axons conduct away from it.
• The neurons form an extremely complex network, which
connects all parts of the body

• While the size of the central body of the nerve cell is the same
as that of other cells of the body, the overall size of the neuron
structure varies from a millimetre or so in the spinal cord to
over a metre in length

• For example, the axones of the foot muscle originate in the

lower part of the spinal cord, where the associated nerve cells
are located.
• The nervous system is the body’s principal regulatory system
and pathological processes in it often lead to serious functional
disturbances

• The symptoms vary greatly depending upon the part of the

nervous system affected by the pathological changes.
• The measurements on the nervous system include recording of
electroencephalogram (EEG) and muscle’s electrical action
potentials, electromyogram (EMG), measurement of
conduction velocity in motor nerves, and recording of the
peripheral nerves’ action potential, electroneurogram (ENG).
 1.2 Sources of
bioelectric potentials –
resting and action
potentials
Sources of Bioelectric Potential

• The systems in the human body generate their on monitoring

signals when they carry out their functions

• These signals provide useful information about their function.

• These signals are bioelectric potentials associated with nerve

conduction, brain activity, heartbeat, muscle activity and so on.
• Bioelectric potentials are actually ionic voltages produced as a
result of electro chemical activity of certain cell.

• Transducers are used to convert these ionic potentials in to

electrical signals.

• Sources of bioelectric potentials are :

• Resting potential and Action potential
Resting Potential [Polarization]

• Certain types of cells within the body, such as nerve and muscle
cells are encased in a semi permeable membrane.

• This membrane permits some substances to pass through while

others are kept out.

• Surrounding the cells of the body are the body fluids.

• These fluids are conductive solutions containing charged atoms

known as ions.
• The principle ions are sodium (Na+) Potassium (K+) and
chloride (Cl-).

• The membrane of excitable cells permits entry of Potassium

(K+) and chloride(Cl-) ions but blocks the entry of sodium (Na+)
ions.

• So inside the cell is more negative than outside cell.

• This membrane potential is called Resting potential.

• This potential is measured from inside the cell with respect to
body fluids.

• So resting potential of a cell is negative.

• This resting potential ranging from -60mv to -100 mv.

• Cell in the resting state is called polarized cell.

Action Potential [Depolarization]

• When a section of a cell membrane is excited by the flow of

ionic current or by some form of externally applied energy, the
membrane allows some Na+ and try to reach some balance of
potential inside and outside.

• Same time the some K+ goes outside but not rapidly like
sodium.
• As a result, the cell has slightly Positive potential on the inside
due to the imbalance of the Potassium ions.

• This potential is known as “action potential” and is

approximately +20 mV.

• A cell that has been excited and that displays an action

potential is said to be depolarized and process from resting to
action potential is called depolarization
1.3 Propagation of
action potentials
Propagation of action potentials
• When a cell is exited and generates an action potentials ionic currents to
flow.

• This process excites neighbouring cells or adjacent area of the same cell

• The rate at which an action potential moves down a fiber or is propagate

from cell to cell is called the propagation rate.

• In nerve fiber the propagation rate is also called the nerve conduction
velocity.

• Velocity range in nerves is from 20 to 140 meters per second. In heart

 The Bioelectric Potentials
• The Electrocardiogram(ECG)

• The Electroencephalogram(EEG)

• The Electromyogram(EMG)

• The Electroretinogram(ERG)

• The Electro-oculogram(EOG)

• The Electrogastrogram(EGG)
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
• The recording of the electrical activity associated with the functioning
of the heart is known as electrocardiogram.

• ECG is a quasi-periodical, rhythmically repeating signal synchronized

by the function of the heart, which acts as a generator of bioelectric
events.
• The normal wave pattern of the electrocardiogram is shown in Fig. 2.4.

• The PR and PQ interval, measured from the beginning of the P wave to

the onset of the R or Q wave respectively, marks the time which an
impulse leaving the SA node takes to reach the ventricles.

• The PR interval normally lies between 0.12 to 0.2 s.

• The QRS interval, which represents the time taken by the heart impulse to
travel first through the interventricular system and then through the free
walls of the ventricles, normally varies from 0.05 to 0.1s.
• The T wave represents repolarization of both ventricles. The QT interval,
therefore, is the period for one complete ventricular contraction (systole).

• Ventricular diastole, starting from the end of the T wave extends to the
beginning of the next Q wave.

• Typical amplitude of QRS is 1 mV for a normal human heart, when

recorded in lead 1 position.
Systole is defined by the following characteristics:
• Systole is when the heart muscle contracts.
• When the heart contracts, it pushes the blood out of the heart and into
the large blood vessels of the circulatory system. From here, the blood
goes to all of the organs and tissues of the body.
• During systole, a person’s blood pressure increases.

Diastole is defined by the following characteristics:

• Diastole is when the heart muscle relaxes.
• When the heart relaxes, the chambers of the heart fill with blood, and a
person’s blood pressure decreases.
120/80
• These measurements are given as millimeters of mercury (mm Hg).
• The first number is the systolic pressure and the second is the diastolic
pressure.
• According to the American College of Cardiology’s (ACC) updated
2017 guidelines, the current blood pressure categories are:
• Normal blood pressure: under 120/80 mmHg
• Elevated blood pressure: a systolic pressure of between 120-129 and a
diastolic pressure of under 80
• Stage 1 hypertension: a systolic pressure of between 130-139 or a diastolic
pressure of between 80 and 89 mmHg
• Stage 2 hypertension: a systolic pressure of at least 140 or a diastolic
pressure of at least 90 mmHg
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• The brain generates rhythmical potentials which originate in the
individual neurons of the brain.

• These potentials get summated as millions of cells discharge

synchronously and appear as a surface waveform, the recording of
which is known as the electroencephalogram (Fig. 2.5).
• The variations in EEG signals both in terms of amplitude and
frequency are of diagnostic value.

• Frequency information is particularly significant since the basic

frequency of the EEG range is classified into the following five
bands for purposes of EEG analysis:

• Delta (δ) 0.5-4 Hz

• Theta (θ) 4-8 Hz
• Alpha (α) 8-13 Hz
• Beta (β) 13-22 Hz
• Gamma (γ) 22-30 Hz
• The alpha rhythm is one of the principal components of the
EEG and is an indicator of the state of ‘alertness’ of the brain.

• It serves as an indicator of the depth of anaesthesia in the

operating room.

• The frequency of the EEG seems to be affected by the mental

activity of a person.

• The wide variation among individuals and the lack of

repeatability in a given person from one occasion to another
makes the analysis a difficult proposition.
• However, certain characteristic EEG waveforms can be
conveniently related to gross abnormalities like epileptic
seizures and sleep disorders.

• Besides the importance of the frequency content of the EEG

pattern, phase relationships between similar EEG patterns from
different parts of the brain are also being studied with great
interest in order to obtain additional knowledge regarding the
functioning of the brain.
EEG Uses
EEGs are used to diagnose conditions like:
• Brain tumors
• Brain damage from a head injury
• Brain disfunction from various causes (encephalopathy)
• Inflammation of the brain (encephalitis)
• Seizure disorders including epilepsy
• Sleep disorders
• Stroke
An EEG may also be used to determine if someone in a coma has
died or to find the right level of anesthesia for someone in a
coma.
Electromyogram (EMG)
• The contraction of the skeletal muscle results in the generation of
action potentials in the individual muscle fibres, a record of which is
known as electromyogram.

• The activity is similar to that observed in the cardiac muscle, but in

the skeletal muscle, repolarization takes place much more rapidly, the
action potential lasting only a few milliseconds
• In voluntary contraction of the skeletal muscle, the muscle
potentials range from 50 μV to 5 mV and the duration from 2
to 15 ms.
• The values vary with the anatomic position of the muscle and
the size and location of the electrode.
• In a relaxed muscle, there are normally no action potentials.
• Fig. 2.6 shows the unprocessed EMG signal characterized by
positive and negative peaks.
• The amplitudes and frequency content of this signal provides
information about the contraction or resting state of the
muscle under study.
Electroretinography (ERG)
• An electrical potential exists between the cornea and the back of the
eye.

• These potential changes when the eye is illuminated.

• The process of recording the change in potential when light falls on

the eye is called electroretinography.
Electro-oculography (EOG)
• Electro-oculography is the recording of the bio-potentials generated
by the movement of the eye ball.

• The EOG potentials are picked up by small surface electrodes placed

on the skin near the eye.
Electrogastrogram (EGG)
• An electrogastrogram (EGG) is a computer generated graphic
produced by electrogastrography,

• It detects, analyzes and records the myoelectrical signal generated by

the movement of the smooth muscle of the stomach, intestines and
other smooth muscle containing organs

• Also known as gastroenterogram