The Digestive System

• The ENTERIC System

• (Gastrointestinal tract)
– Mouth to anus
– Long tube with different
structures and functions
– Accessory glands
• salivary glands
• pancreas
• liver
• gallbladder

1
 Movements of Digestive System
•Ingestion – introduction of into the mouth
•Digestion – break down of foodstuffs to basic building blocks (aa,
sugars, fats, nucleotides)
•Absorption – passage of building blocks from intestine via portal
system to the liver
•Assimilation – movement of the digestive food as part of the cell
from where it is needed
•Storage – reservoir of food
•Elimination – release of waste products and recovery of fluids

2
The Gastrointestinal Tract
Physiological Processes of the
Digestive Tract

3.

1.

4.

2.
Glands ready for digestion:
•Salivary glands release
– Serous and mucous fluid
– Amylase – breaks down carbohydrates
– Lipase – lipid digestion
•Stomach begins to churn (muscles) and acid &
enzymes are released
•Pancreas and gall bladder activate
•These are controlled by the CNS – the extrinsic
nervous system.

5
Food in the mouth
• Salivary glands release
– Serous and mucous fluid
– Digestion begins
– Amylase – breaks down
carbohydrates
– Lipase for lipid digestion
• Chewing (mastication) and mixing of
food with tongue
• Stomach muscles contract, acid and
enzymes released
• Pancreas and gall bladder secrete
6
Swallowing of the chewed food
• Tongue helps move food
bolus to the oropharynx
(mouth)
• Skeletal muscles in the pharynx
move food to esophagus
• Esophagus = a conduit to
stomach
– muscles contract to allow
peristalsis
– glands secrete to moisten food

8
What happens to the bread in the
stomach?
• Stomach Functions:
– Storage of food
– Mixing via muscle contractions
– Release of H+ & Cl- and pH lowers
• kills bacteria
• Degrades foods = chyme
– Cells release pepsinogen – a zymoge
– Pepsinogen converted to pepsin
in low pH – cleaves proteins
– Digestion continues via
• Acid and pepsin
• Amylase, lipase
9
Chyme in the small intestine
• Acidic Fluids flow into the small
intestine: (7 m or 22 ft long)
– digestive enzymes and bicarbonate
(HCO3-) added from Pancreas
– Liver makes bile for lipid absorption
– Water added and reabsorbed
• Digestion accelerates and pH
neutralized to pH ~ 7
• Absorption of building blocks through
enterocytes to the liver via the portal
small blood system
intestine
• Undigested material remains

11
Large intestine
1.5 m or 5 feet
• Dehydration of
indigestible material
• Removal of electrolytes
• Compaction of
indigestible material
• Elimination of
undigested material

12
Accessory glands for the digestive system –
(see small intestine)
• Salivary glands
– Moistening/lubricating fluid with enzymes
– Amylase helps break down starch; lipase - lipids
• Pancreas
– Release of digestive enzymes
– Release of bicarbonate (HCO3- ) solution
– Endocrine functions = insulin & glucagon
• Liver
– Makes bile -- helps dissolve fats
– Receives and stores building blocks (aa, CHO,
etc.) from intestine
– Makes blood proteins
– Detoxifies drugs
• Gallbladder
13
– Stores and concentrates bile (from liver)
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Digestive
System) Accessory Digestive Organs Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract

y
Summar
Teeth Oral cavity
Tongue: mechanical processing, moistening,
Pharynx: muscular propulsion of
and mixing with salivary secretions
Salivary glands: secretion of materials into the esophagus
lubricating fluids with enzymes
to breakdown carbohydrates
and lipids

Esophagus: conduit to
the stomach (15”)

Liver: synthesis of bile, storage of

nutrients, many other functions
Gallbladder: Storage, concentration
and secretion of bile Stomach: chemical breakdown of
materials by acidic and enzymatic
processing and mechanical mixing via
Pancreas: exocrine portion muscular contractions ( 12”)
secrete buffers and digestive
enzymes and endocrine portion Small intestine: enzymatic
secretes hormones digestion and absorption of
nutrients (20’)
Large intestine: dehydration
and compaction of materials
in preparation for elimination
(3’)

Anus
 Fig 24.2
Concepts and
characteristics
Peritoneal cavity
• Retroperitoneal
– Posterior to the parietal
peritoneum
– Embedded in connective
tissue
• duodenum
• pancreas
• parts of the lg intestine
• Intraperitoneal (with in)
– Bordered by a single cell -
mesothelium
Omentum (from ‘epipleein’ Gk.) meaning to float on; Mesentery is a double layer of peritoneum
15
 Mesentery

- Supports 20’ of small intestine – hold in place yet allows movement

- Allows blood vessels and nervous system to enter and leave 16
 food General concepts for the
Digestive System
Design of the tube: Structure
H2O, ions
Control mechanisms: Neural
- intrinsic = Enteric NS
- extrinsic = CNS
Control mechanisms: Hormonal
- signaling molecules
- secretions
H2O, - motility of muscles
ions
Digestion and Absorption

17
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Design of the Four Layers in the GI System

#1 Mucosa
Epithelium

e Lamina propria

ch ang Muscularis
mucosae
s
#2 Submucosa

Submucosal
nerve plexus
Lumen

#3 Muscularis
Inner circular layer

Myenteric
nerve plexus
Outer longitudinal
layer
Vein, artery,
lymph vessel
(within mesentery)
#4 Serosa or Adventitia

(a) Tunics
 4 layers – different diagram
mesentery
From salivary glands,
pancreas or liver

mesothelium
Lamina propria #4 Serosa

#2 Submucosa #3 Muscularis
externa
Muscularis mucosa

Different
surfaces

Submucosal gland
#1 Mucosa – epithelium, lamina propria, muscularis mucosa 19
 Fig 24.4

Peristalsis, segmentation, and…

•
Ganglia!
Peristalsis – process that moves
chyme forward – in 1 direction
• Segmentation – irregular
contractions forcing chyme in both
directions NO NET PROGRESS
– Passes nutrients back and forth to
optimize absorption
• Interstitial cells of Cajal – motor
neurons in the myenteric plexus
– Intrinsic control
– Slow, constant contractions

LUMEN 20
 Control Mechanisms
• 1. Neuronal (neurocrine)
– A. Short or Intrinsic Reflex– neurons within the GI
system (ENS = enteric nervous system)
• Signal from the lumen to the ENS and back
• The only organ system capable of using a reflex response
without the CNS
– B. Long or Extrinsic Reflex– neurons in the CNS –
(outside the ENS)
• Signal from the lumen to the CNS and back to the GI tract
• 2. Hormonal – enteroendocrine cells in the GI
epithelium and endocrine glands
– Paracrine
– Endocrine 21
Neural controls of the GI System
Extrinsic = CNS Intrinsic = ENS

More neurons in the gut than in the spinal cord

 Control mechanisms : Neural – Intrinsic
Enteric NS = short reflex
PNS: neurons intrinsic to the digestive system (GI) =
Enteric nervous system - ‘the little brain’
• Sensory neurons receive signals from the lumen. They contain:
• Mechanoreceptors - for stretch
• Chemoreceptors - pH, osmolarity, food breakdown
products
• Signals go to intrinsic Parasympathetic neurons – ’rest and digest’
• Cause cell/gland secretions and muscle contractions
• Sympathetic fibers – shut enteric system down
• Mostly inhibit parasympathetic neurons
• Control blood flow
• Interneurons important for local reflexes
• Motor neurons drive smooth muscle
23
 Control mechanisms : Neural – Extrinsic CNS =
long reflex
• Input from 5 senses in CNS signal GI system
• Starts gland and cell secretions in mouth and stomach
• Starts muscle contractions in stomach
• or Signals in GI are sent to the CNS
– Sensory information(from GI) =afferent to CNS and response
= efferent back to GI system = REFLEX
– CNS sends signals to enteric neurons
• controls GI gland and cell secretions
• controls GI muscle contractions– indirectly through
– CNS influences can be modified by autonomic NS
• Parasympathetic and sympathetic
• Emotions (CNS) effect enteric system
• Butterflies when flying 1st time
• Talking in front of a class – mouth is dry
• Really scared – urination or diarrhea
24
 The Enteric Nervous System
Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Controls
Ex
t
rin
si c
NS

Intrinsic Nervous system

signals
• Submucosal
plexus
(Meissner’s)

• Myenteric
plexus
(Auerbach’s)
25
 IE W
RE
V
Signaling mechanisms
• 1. Autocrine – signal
goes back to cell of origin
• 2. Paracrine – signal goes
short distance to nearby
cells

lumen 3. Endocrine mechanisms

Blood vessel

Enteroendocrine cell 26
 Control mechanisms: Hormonal
• Hormonal mechanisms
– Enteroendocrine cells ‘ taste’ chemicals in the lumen
– Enteroendocrine release peptide hormones
• Released into CT and then blood vessels
– Function via paracrine & endocrine mechanisms
• Controls secretion of gland cells (stomach, pancreas, etc.)
• Controls - enhance or inhibit muscle contraction
• Influence intrinsic and extrinsic nervous system inputs
– Endocrine hormones, eg. insulin, glucagon, etc

27
 vi ew Glands -
Re
• Exocrine glands – release
of products through duct
systems

• Endocrine glands – release

of products into the
circulation (blood vessels) to
circulate to target cells
– enteroendocrine cells
secrete peptides
– GI is the largest endocrine
gland –

28
 Secretions: cells & glands
• Enteroendocrine cells (stomach, duodenum …)
– Respond to events in the lumen (mechanical or chemical) =
‘taste buds’ of the gut
– Secrete peptides – paracrine & endocrine (into the
circulation)
• Example: G cells release gastrin – a peptide
• Gastrin – to near cells and enters into blood vessels and controls
– Cell secretion
– Muscle motility
– Some also respond to CNS neural inputs
• Exocrine Glands (gland cells secrete into ducts)
– Salivary glands make H20 and enzymes
– Liver makes bile
– Pancreas makes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate (HCO3-)
– Duodenal glands make bicarbonate (HCO3-) to neutralize HCl
29
 Motility = muscle movement
• Skeletal muscle = voluntary control from CNS
– Tongue and pharynx
– Upper 2/3 esophagus
– Anal region sphincter

• Smooth muscle = involuntary control

– Intrinsic control from enteric parasympathetic neurons
on:
• Muscularis mucosa: smooth muscle
• Muscularis externa: inner circular and outer longitudinal bands
– Extrinsic control from the CNS neurons
• CNS neurons stimulate ENS parasympathetic neurons
• Control muscles in the enteric nervous system
• Modified by sympathetic neurons

30
 Smooth Muscle Motility
• Necessary functions:
– Mixing of food, acid and enzymes in the stomach
– Slow release of chyme into the small intestine
– Controls movement through small intestine and thus rate of digestion
– Movement and removal of indigestible material
• Structure – smooth muscle cells
– Closely positioned elongated cells w/o direct synapses
– Gap junctions allow synchronous contractions of many cells
• Actions
– Depolarization allows Ca++ influx or release of intracellular Ca ++
– Contraction of smooth muscle cells
• Causative agents
– Release of neurotransmitter from ENS neurons
– Signal molecules (histamine, serotonin, etc.)

31
 Stimulus (sight, Sensory Digestive
smell, etc) receptors system
Responses

1. Muscle

(Sympathetic) contraction
decrease in activity or
relaxation
2. Exocrine
gland
secretion:
enzymes,
Enteric neurons Smooth
Stimulus: mucous,
Sensory (ganglia/ plexus) muscles
(stretch, pH, receptors of
acid,
or
osmolarity, neurons (Parasympathetic) bicarbonate
secretory
products of
increase in activity cells 3. Endocrine
digestion)
secretion:
peptides,
Enteric nervous system insulin

Green arrows = short (intrinsic) reflex Blue arrows = long (extrinsic) reflex 32
 Summary: Digestive System
• Series of tubes with different epithelia and cells =
mouth to the anus
• 4 layers to the tubes (mucosa, submucosa,
muscularis externa, adventitia or serosa
• Accessory organs (salivary, pancreas, liver, and
gallbladder)
• Controls:
– nervous system (extrinsic and intrinsic) and
– hormones – paracrine and endocrine mechanisms
• Secretory cells in the tubes and accessory glands
• Motility (muscle) of the tubes is important
• Digestion, absorption, and excretion occur

33
What does the digestive system do?

• First 2 functions you think of

• What happens when you first
smell fresh apple pie?
• What does your stomach do?
• How long is the intestine?
• Does your GI tract move, make
noise?
• Does your nervous system
control the GI tract?
• Why do you eat food?
34
 Interactions in the Digestive System
Fig 24.5

Important

35
Sensory
SensoryNeurons
NeuronsAssociated
Associated with
with the Gut
the Gut

Intrinsic neurons

Credit to Dr. G. Mawe 36

Efferent
efferents efferents

Intrinsic neurons

Credit to Dr. G. Mawe 37