ECONOMICS

Twelfth Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 8
Utility and
Demand

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 Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives

8.1 Explain the limits to

consumption and describe
preferences using the concept of
utility
8.2 Explain the marginal utility
theory of consumer choice
8.3 Use marginal utility theory to
predict the effects of changes in
prices and incomes and to explain
the paradox of value
8.4 Describe some new ways of
explaining consumer choices

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 Consumption Choices (1 of 11)

• The choices you make as a buyer of goods and services

are influenced by many factors, which economists
summarize as
‒ Consumption possibilities
‒ Preferences

• Consumption Possibilities
‒ Consumption possibilities are all the things that a
consumer can afford to buy.
‒ We’ll study the consumption possibilities of Lisa, who buys only
two goods: movies and soda.

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 Consumption Choices (2 of 11)

• A Consumer’s Budget Line

‒ Consumption possibilities are limited by income, the price of
a movie, and the price of soda.
‒ When Lisa spends all of her income, she reaches the limits
of her consumption possibilities.
‒ Lisa’s budget line shows the limits of her consumption
possibilities.

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 Consumption Choices (3 of 11)

• Lisa has $40 to spend, the price of a movie is $8 and the

price of soda is $4 a case.

Movies Soda
Expenditure Expenditure
Possibility Quantity (dollars) Cases (dollars)
A 0 0 10 40
B 1 8 8 32
C 2 16 6 24
D 3 24 4 16
E 4 32 2 8
F 5 40 0 0

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 Consumption Choices (4 of 11)

• Lisa can afford any of the

combinations at the points
A to F.
• Some goods are indivisible
and must be bought in
whole units at the points
marked.
• Other goods are divisible
goods and can be bought
in any quantity.
• The line through points A
to F is Lisa’s budget line.

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 Consumption Choices (5 of 11)

• The budget line is a

constraint on Lisa’s
consumption choices.
• Lisa can afford any point
on her budget line or
inside it.
• Lisa cannot afford any
point outside her budget
line.

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 Consumption Choices (6 of 11)

• Preferences
‒ The choice that Lisa makes depends on her preferences—
her likes and dislikes.
‒ Her benefit or satisfaction from consuming a good or service
is called utility.
• Total Utility
‒ Total utility is the total benefit a person gets from the
consumption of goods.
‒ Generally, more consumption gives more total utility.

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 Consumption Choices (7 of 11)

• Table 8.1 shows Lisa’s TABLE 8.1 Lisa’s Utility from Movies and
Soda
total utility schedule. Movies Soda
• Total utility from a good Quantity Total Cases Total
increases as the quantity (per month) utility (per month) utility
0 0 0 0
of the good increases. 1 50 1 75
• For example, as Lisa 2 90 2 123
3 122 3 159
sees more movies in a
4 150 4 183
month, her total utility 5 176 5 205
from movies increases. 6 200 6 225
7 222 7 238
8 242 8 248
9 259 9 255
10 275 10 260

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 Consumption Choices (8 of 11)

• Marginal Utility
‒ Marginal utility from a good is the change in total utility
that results from a unit-increase in the quantity of the good
consumed.
‒ As the quantity consumed of a good increases, the marginal
utility from it decreases.
‒ We call this decrease in marginal utility as the quantity of the
good consumed increases the principle of diminishing
marginal utility.
• All the things that people enjoy and want more of have a
positive marginal utility. Total utility increases as the quantity
consumed increases.

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 Exercise: Marginal Utility
Quantity of a TU MU
good consumed
0 0 ——
1 4 4
2 7
3
3 9
2
4 10
1
5 10
0
6 8
-2

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 Consumption Choices (9 of 11)

• Table 8.1 shows how to

calculate Lisa’s marginal
utility from her total utility.
• Marginal utility from a
good decreases as the
quantity of the good
increases.
• For example, as the
number of movies seen in
a month increases,
marginal utility from
movies decreases.

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 Consumption Choices (10 of 11)

• Figure 8.2(a) shows Lisa’s

total utility and marginal
utility from soda.
• Total utility from soda
increases as more soda is
consumed.
• The bars along the total
utility curve show the extra
total utility (marginal utility)
from each additional case
of soda.

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 Consumption Choices (11 of 11)

• Graphing Liz’s Utility

Schedule
• Figure 8.2(b) illustrates
diminishing marginal utility.
• As Lisa increases the
quantity of soda she
drinks, her marginal utility
from soda diminishes.

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 Utility-Maximizing Choice (1 of 14)

• The key assumption is that the household chooses the

consumption possibility that maximizes total utility.
• A Spreadsheet Solution
‒ The direct way to find the utility-maximizing choice is to
make a table in a spreadsheet and do the calculations.
 Find the just-affordable combinations
 Find the total utility for each just-affordable combination
 The utility-maximizing combination is the consumer’s choice

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 Utility-Maximizing Choice (2 of 14)

• Find the Just-Affordable

Combinations TABLE 8.2 Lisa’s Utility-Maximizing Choice
• Lisa has $40 a month to
spend on movies and Movies $8 Soda $4
Quantity Cases
soda. (per month) (per month)

• The price of a movie is $8 A

B
0
1
10
8

and the price of soda is C 2 6

D 3 4
$4 a case. E 4 2

• Each row of Table 8.2 F 5 0

shows a combination of
movies and soda that
exhausts Lisa’s $40.
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 Utility-Maximizing Choice (3 of 14)

• Find the Total Utility for

Each Just-Affordable
TABLE 8.2 Lisa’s Utility-Maximizing Choice
Combination
• When Lisa sees 1 movie Total
and drinks 8 cases of soda Movies $8 utility Soda $4
from
a month, … Quantity Total movies Total Cases
(per month) utility and soda utility (per month)
• she gets 50 units of utility A 0 10
from the 1 movie and 248 B 1 50 298 248 8
units of utility from the 8 C 6
cases of soda. D 4

• Her total utility is 298 units. E 2

F 0

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 Utility-Maximizing Choice (4 of 14)

• Consumer Equilibrium
• Lisa chooses the TABLE 8.2 Lisa’s Utility-Maximizing Choice
combination that gives
her the highest total Total
utility. Movies $8 utility Soda $4
from
Total Cases
• Lisa maximizes her total Quantity
(per month)
Total
utility
movies
and soda utility (per month)
utility when she sees A 0 0 260 260 10
2 movies and drinks 6 B 1 50 298 248 8

cases of soda a month. C 2 90 315 225 6

D 3 122 305 183 4
• Lisa gets 90 units of E 4 150 273 123 2
utility from the 2 movies F 5 176 176 0 0
and 225 units of utility
from the 6 cases of soda.

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 Utility-Maximizing Choice (5 of 14)

• Consumer
equilibrium is the TABLE 8.2 Lisa’s Utility-Maximizing Choice
situation in which Lisa
has allocated all of her Movies $8
Total
utility Soda $4
available income in the Quantity Total
from
Total Cases
movies
way that maximizes (per month) utility and soda utility (per month)

her total utility, given A 0 0 260 260 10

B 1 50 298 248 8
the prices of movies
C 2 90 315 225 6
and soda. D 3 122 305 183 4
• Lisa’s consumer E 4 150 273 123 2

equilibrium is 2 movies F 5 176 176 0 0

and 6 cases of soda a

month.

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 Utility-Maximizing Choice (6 of 14)

• A more natural way of finding the consumer equilibrium is

to use the idea of choices made at the margin.

• Choosing at the Margin

‒ Having made a choice, would spending a dollar more or a
dollar less on a good bring more total utility?
‒ Marginal utility is the increase in total utility that results
from consuming one more unit of the good.
‒ The marginal utility per dollar is the marginal utility from a
good that results from spending one more dollar on it.

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 Utility-Maximizing Choice (7 of 14)

• Marginal Utility Rule

‒ The marginal utility per dollar equals the marginal utility
from a good divided by its price.
‒ Calling the marginal utility from movies MUM and the price of
a movie PM, then the marginal utility per dollar from movies
is MUM/PM .
‒ Calling the marginal utility of soda MUS and the price of
soda PS , then the marginal utility per dollar from soda is
MUS/PS.
‒ By comparing MUM/PM and MUS/PS , we can determine
whether Lisa has allocated her budget in the way that
maximizes her total utility.
‒ equal marginal pm⬇️MUm⬇️Qm⬆️ 价格不变线移动
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 Utility-Maximizing Choice (8 of 14)

• Utility-Maximizing Rule
– A consumer’s total utility is maximized by following the
rule:
 Spend all available income
 Equalize the marginal utility per dollar for all goods

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 Utility-Maximizing Choice (9 of 14)

• Lisa’s Marginal Calculation

‒ Figure 8.3 shows why the utility-maximizing rule works.
‒ Each row of the table (on the next slide) shows a just-
affordable combination.
‒ Start by choosing a row—a point on the budget line.

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 Utility-Maximizing Choice (10 of 14)

Movies Soda
($8 each) ($4 per case)

Marginal Marginal
utility utility
Marginal per Marginal per
Quantity utility dollar Cases utility dollar
B 1 50 6.25 8 10 2.50

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 Utility-Maximizing Choice (11 of 14)

• If Lisa spends less on soda and more on movies,

• MUS increases and MUM decreases.

Movies Soda
($8 each) ($4 per case)

Marginal Marginal
utility utility
Marginal per Marginal per
Quantity utility dollar Cases utility dollar
B 1 50 6.25 8 10 2.50

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 Utility-Maximizing Choice (12 of 14)

Movies Soda
($8 each) ($4 per case)

Marginal Marginal
utility utility
Marginal per Marginal per
Quantity utility dollar Cases utility dollar
B 1 50 6.25 8 10 2.50

D 3 32 4.00 4 24 6.00

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 Utility-Maximizing Choice (13 of 14)

• If Lisa spends more on soda and less on movies,

• MUS decreases and MUM increases.

Movies Soda
($8 each) ($4 per case)

Marginal Marginal
utility utility
Marginal per Marginal per
Quantity utility dollar Cases utility dollar
B 1 50 6.25 8 10 2.50

D 3 32 4.00 4 24 6.00

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 Utility-Maximizing Choice (14 of 14)

Movies Soda
($8 each) ($4 per case)
Marginal Marginal
utility utility
Marginal per Marginal per
Quantity utility dollar Cases utility dollar
B 1 50 6.25 8 10 2.50
C 2 40 5.00 6 20 5.00
D 3 32 4.00 4 24 6.00

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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
• The marginal utility theory predicts:
– the law of demand;
– a fall in the price of a substitute of a good
decreases the demand for the good;
– for a normal good, a rise in income increases
demand.

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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
(1 of 14)

• We can use marginal utility theory to make some

predictions.

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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
(2 of 14)

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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
(3 of 14)

TABLE 8.3 How a Change in the Price of

Movies Affects Lisa’s Choices
Movies Soda
($4 each) ($4 per case)
Marginal Marginal
utility utility
Marginal per Marginal per
Quantity utility dollar Cases utility dollar
0 0 10 5 1.25
1 50 12.50 9 7 1.75
A 2 40 10.00 8 10 2.50
3 32 8.00 7 13 3.25
B 4 28 7.00 6 20 5.00
5 26 6.50 5 22 5.50
C 6 24 6.00 4 24 6.00
7 22 5.50 3 36 9.00

consumption before price 8 20 5.00 2 48 12.00

change 9 17 4.25 1 75 18.75

consumption after price change 10 16 4.00 0 0

买更多 - 收入效应；性价比高 - 替代效应

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 • Lisa’s increased purchases of movies results from
a substitution effect—she substitutes the now
lower priced movies for soda—and an income
effect—she can afford more movies.

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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
(4 of 14)

• Figure 8.4 illustrates these

predictions.
• A fall in the price of a movie
increases the quantity of
movies demanded—a
movement along the demand
curve for movies, ...
• and decreases the demand for
soda—a shift of the demand
curve for soda.

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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
(5 of 14)

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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
(6 of 14)

TABLE 8.4 How a Change in the Price of

Soda Affects Lisa’s Choices
Movies Soda
($4 each) ($8 per case)
Marginal Marginal
utility utility
Marginal per Marginal per
Quantity utility dollar Cases utility dollar
0 0 5 22 2.75
A 2 40 10.00 4 24 3.00
4 28 7.00 3 36 4.50
B 6 24 6.00 2 48 6.00
8 20 5.00 1 75 9.38
10 16 4.00 0 0

consumption before price

change
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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
(7 of 14)

• Figure 8.5 illustrates these

predictions.
• A rise in the price of soda
decreases the quantity of
soda demanded—a
movement along the
demand curve for soda.

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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
(8 of 14)

• A Rise in Income
‒ When income increases, the demand for a normal good
increases.
‒ Given the prices of movies ($4) and soda ($4), when Lisa’s
income increases from $40 to $56 a month, she buys more
movies and more soda.
‒ Movies and soda are normal goods.
‒ Table 8.5 shows these predictions.

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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
(9 of 14)

• Table 8.5 shows Lisa’s just-

affordable combinations TABLE 8.5 Lisa’s Choices with an Income of
when she has $56 to $56 a Month
Movies Soda
spend. ($4 each) ($4 per case)
• With $40 to spend, Lisa Marginal Marginal
utility utility
sees 6 movies and drinks Marginal per Marginal per
Quantity utility dollar Cases utility dollar
4 cases of soda a month. 4 28 7.00 10 5 1.25

• With $56 to spend, Lisa 5 26 6.50 9 7 1.75

A 6 24 6.00 8 10 2.50
spends the extra $16, so 7 22 5.50 7 13 3.25
she buys more of both B 8 20 5.00 6 20 5.00
goods. 9 17 4.25 5 22 5.50
C 10 16 4.00 4 24 6.00
• She sees 8 movies and
drinks 6 cases of soda a
consumption before income rise
month.
consumption after income rise
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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
(10 of 14)

• Figure 8.6 illustrates these predictions.

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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
(11 of 14)

• The Paradox of Value

‒ Water, which is essential to life, is far cheaper than
diamonds, which are not essential.
‒ The paradox of value of why water is far cheaper than
diamonds is resolved by distinguishing between total utility
and marginal utility.
‒ We use so much water that the marginal utility from water
consumed is small, but the total utility is large.
‒ We buy few diamonds, so the marginal utility from
diamonds is large, but the total utility is small.
‒ 边际效用

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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
(12 of 14)

• The Paradox Resolved

‒ The paradox is resolved by distinguishing between total
utility and marginal utility.
‒ For water, the price is low, total utility is large, and marginal
utility is small.
‒ For diamonds, the price is high, total utility is small, and
marginal utility is high.
‒ But marginal utility per dollar is equal for water and
diamonds.

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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
(13 of 14)

• Value and Consumer Surplus

• The supply of water is perfectly
elastic, so the quantity of water
consumed is large and the
consumer surplus from water is
large.
• In contrast, the supply of
diamonds is perfectly inelastic,
so the price is high and the
consumer surplus from
diamonds is small.

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 Predictions of Marginal Utility Theory
(14 of 14)

• Temperature: An Analogy
‒ Utility is similar to temperature. Both are abstract concepts,
and both have units of measurement that are arbitrary.
‒ The concept of utility helps us make predictions about
consumption choices in much the same way that the concept
of temperature enables us to predict when water will turn to
ice or steam.
‒ The concept of utility helps us understand why people buy
more of a good when its price falls and why people buy more
of most goods when their incomes increase.

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 New Ways of Explaining Consumer
Choices (1 of 6)
• Behavioral Economics
‒ Behavioral economics studies the ways in which limits on
the human brain’s ability to compute and implement rational
decisions influence economic behavior—both the decisions
that people make and the consequences of those decisions
for the way markets work.
‒ There are three impediments to rational choice:
 Bounded rationality
 Bounded willpower
 Bounded self-interest

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 New Ways of Explaining Consumer
Choices (2 of 6)
• Bounded Rationality
‒ Bounded rationality is rationality that is bounded by the
computing power of the human brain.
‒ Faced with uncertainty, consumers cannot rationally make
choices and instead rely on other decision-making methods
such as rules of thumb, listening to the views of others, or gut
instinct.

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 New Ways of Explaining Consumer
Choices (3 of 6)
• Bounded Willpower
‒ Bounded will-power is the less-than-perfect willpower that
prevents us from making a decision that we know, at the time
of implementing the decision, we will later regret.
• Bounded Self-Interest
‒ Bounded self-interest is the limited self-interest that
sometimes results in suppressing our own interests to help
others.
‒ Main applications are in finance where uncertainty is the key
factor and savings where future is the key factor.

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 New Ways of Explaining Consumer
Choices (4 of 6)
• One behavior observed by behavioral economists is more
general and might affect your choices.
• The Endowment Effect
‒ The endowment effect is the tendency for people to value
something more highly simply because they own it.
‒ 禀赋效应

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 New Ways of Explaining Consumer
Choices (5 of 6)
• Neuroeconomics
‒ Neuroeconomics is the study of the activity of the human
brain when a person makes an economic decision.
‒ Different decisions appear to activate different areas of the
brain. Some decisions are made
 In the pre-frontal cortex where memories are stored and data
analyzed and might be deemed rational.
 In the hippocampus where memories of anxiety and fear are
stored and might be deemed irrational.

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 New Ways of Explaining Consumer
Choices (6 of 6)
• Controversy
‒ Should economics focus on explaining the decisions we
observe or should it focus on what goes on inside people’s
heads?
‒ This is the controversy.
‒ For most economists, the goal of economics is to explain the
decisions that we observe people make, and not to explain
what goes on inside people’s heads.

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