VISHNU INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
NON DESTRUCTIVE
EVALUATION
IV [Link]
RADIOGRAPHY(UNIT-I)
BY
Mr. M. Praveen
Associate Professor
UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION TO NON-DESTRUCTIVE
NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING: It is a material testing technique, which
TESTING
detects the quality and defects of the material without damaging or
destroying the material
Radiographic test
Sources of X and Gamma Rays and their
interaction with Matter
Radiographic equipment
Radiographic Techniques
Safety Aspects of Industrial Radiography
Classification of Non-Destructive
Tests
[Link] Test
[Link] Test
[Link] Penetrant Test
[Link] Particle Test
[Link] Current Test
Sources of Radiation used in Radiographic Inspection Method
X-rays
Gamma rays
Properties of X and Gamma Rays
They are invisible and travels at the speed of the light.
They propogate in a straight line and pass through space without transference of
matter.
They are not affected by electric and magnetic fields.
They are capable of blackening photographic film.
They can damage and kill living cells & produce genetic mutation.
Differentiate X rays and Gamma
rays
Gamma rays are emitted by excited atomic nuclei. X-rays are emitted by
excited electrons.
Gamma rays have shorter wavelengths than the X-rays,
Gamma rays higher in frequency, and carry more energy than X-rays.
Gamma rays cause more harm to human body than the X-rays
X-rays are used in hospitals but Gamma rays are not
Advantages of Gamma Ray Radiography over X-ray Radiography
They are used in industrial radiography for materials too thick or too large
for X-rays to be effective
Gamma rays are used to irradiate foodstuffs like strawberries, to prolong
their shelf-life.(For preserving food)
For detecting leakages in pipes.
For Space exploration they used gamma-ray telescopes
Gamma-rays can kill living cells, so Gamma-rays used to kill cancerous cells
Method Of X-ray Generation
X-rays are produced when high speed
electrons strike a metal target in a highly
evacuated glass Enclosure.
A metal filament is sealed inside the
enclosure, which is heated by a current to
produce electrons.
At the other end of the glass enclosure, a metal target is sealed, on which fast moving electrons
Strike.
To accelerate the electrons, high voltage is applied between the filament(cathode) and the
metal target (anode) as shown in fig.
1% of kinetic energy of electrons during striking target converted into X-rays,99% of energy Into
heat.
The quality and quantity of the X-rays are controlled by adjusting tube voltage , filament current
and exposure time.
Methods Of Producing Gamma Rays
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation emitted from an unstable nucleus.
It can be produced by four different nuclear reactions: Fusion, Fission, Alpha decay, Gamma decay
During these reactions, a variety of radioisotopes are produced in a nuclear reactor.
Each radioisotope with unstable nucleus emits Gamma rays . Gamma rays consist of discrete
wavelengths much shorter than that of X-rays.
Gamma ray equipment consists of an isotopic source ,Pencil and a container for positioning the
source pencil as shown in [Link] isotopic source is encapsulated in a container made of Steel,
Aluminium.
The size of the source ranges from 0.4 mm to 6 mm.
Interaction of X-rays and Gamma Rays with matter
Major factors for attenuation of incident X-rays or Gamma rays are Photoelectric
emission, Compton scattering , Pair production
Scatter Radiation is a type of secondary radiation that occurs when the useful
beam intercepts any object, causing some x-rays to be scattered
Principle & Working of Radiography Testing:
It uses X-ray or Gamma rays as a source of radiation
which passes through the test object and captured
on a film called radiograph.
The radiation that enters the material are being
absorbed by the material itself.
Absorption level depends on the thickness and
density of the material.
When there is a cavity or discontinuity, radiation will
have less material to travel and there will be a
reduction in the absorption level by the material.
The variation is recorded on the film which produces an image to indicate the presence of the
defect.
Thus radiography is essentially based on the principle of shadow projection and such a shadow
picture is called radiograph
Components of Radiographic Equipment
It has four main components
•Operating console
•High frequency generator
•X ray tube
•Radiographic film
RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
[Link] Wall Single Image (SWSI) Technique (for dia greater
than 8 inch)
It is used to inspect plates, cylinders like pipes, shells etc.
There are two ways in SWSI Technique. They are
a. SWSI Flat Technique:
In this technique, the radiographic source outside the pipe and the
film is inside the pipe as shown in Fig.
b. SWSI Panoramic Technique: In this technique, the
radiographic source inside the pipe and the film outside the pipe. The
source can be fixed in two ways, namely at the centre and off centre
as shown in Fig.
When the source is at the centre and if it emits radiation in all
directions, the total circumferential weld is exposed at one exposure.
If the source is off centre, it requires more energy to penetrate
[Link] Wall Single Image (DWSI) Technique: In this, both the
source and the film are kept outside the pipe, but on opposite sides of it
i.e., the source is kept very close to the outside surface of the pipe and the
film is kept on the other outer side of the pipe. It is suitable for pipes welds
with outer diameter greater than 3.5 inch where internal access is not
permitted. Three exposures required. We get external exposure.
[Link] Wall Double Image (DWDI) Technique: In this source and film
are kept again on opposite sides and outside the pipe. The image of the pipe
wall nearest to the source appears on the film instead of the image of the
pipe wall nearest to the film. Therefore, to get the image on both the film
and the source side,It requires min of two exposures.
It is applicable only for pipe welds with outer diameter less than or equal to
3.5 inch where internal access is not permitted. We get elliptical exposure
(image)
Reasons for FILTERS and SCREENS used in X- ray radiography
SCREENS
Radiographic film emulsion, when exposed to radiation, absorbs only a small
amount of
Radiation. In order to fully utilize the radiation and enhance the photographic effect,
Screens are used in combination with films.
They are of two types.
Meta foil screens(Lead foil screens):- It consists of lead foil mounted on
cardboard or plastic. These are used in pairs by sandwitching the film between
them. One of the screens facing the source side is called the front screen and the
other is back screen which is placed behind the film. Main advantage is harmful
effect of scattered radiation is reduced and higher intensification reduces exposure
time. Other metal screens such as Copper,tungsten screens are also used.
Fluorescent intensifying screens(salt screens):- It consists of a powdered
fluorescent material such as calcium tungston or barium lead sulfate of which a thin
uniform layer is spread with a suitable binder on a cardboard or a plastic support. The
fluorescent material emits visible or ultraviolet light when exposed to X-rays or
Gamma rays . It reduces the exposure time.
FILTERS
Metallic sheets of high atomic number are used as filters to absorb soft radiation(long
wavelength) emanating from through tube port and allow comparatively hard
radiation(short wavelength) to penetrate the specimen. Generally filters are made of
aluminium,copper or lead.
Advantages of filters
Increased contrast around the specimen edge
Reduced undercut scatter at the edge of thinner sections
Record wide range of specimen thickness
Improve image quality for specimens above 40mm thickness
SAFETY ASPECTS OF INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
[Link] radiation workers should be monitored regularly
[Link] dose received by the person be well within prescribed limits
[Link] of excessive exposure be detected with minimum delay and suitable
corrective measures taken to avoid future excessive exposure
[Link] cumulative records of the individual radiation workers be maintained for
the entire period during which they work with the radiation source.