Heat transfer

Basic
• The energy transfer is always happens from high temperature medium
to low temperature medium.
• Energy transfer will stop b/w two medium when temperature of two
medium become same.
What is heat?
Heat is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to
another as a result of the temperature difference.
What is heat transfer?
The science deals with the determination of rate of such energy transfer
What is equilibrium state?
It is when system is balanced and does not change its property over time. when
molten rock rises from a volcano, it emits heat into the atmosphere
until the rock, and the atmosphere reaches the same temperature.
1. Thermal equilibrium
2. Mechanical
3. Chemical

• Heat transfer occur due to temperature difference(The temperature difference is

the driving force for heat transfer, just as the voltage difference is the driving force
for electric current flow and pressure difference is the driving force for fluid flow.)
• The larger the temperature gradient, the higher the rate of heat transfer
• Heat is then defined as the energy associated with the random motion of atoms
and molecules.
What is Caloric theory?
The caloric theory asserts that heat is a fluidlike substance called the caloric that
is a massless, colorless, odorless, and tasteless substance that can be poured
from one body into another. When caloric was added to a body, its temperature
increased; and when caloric was removed from a body, its temperature
decreased.
Differential equations that provide precise mathematical formulations for the
physical principles and laws by representing the rates of changes as derivatives.
What is Internal Energy?
The sum of all microscopic energy is called internal energy. The form energy that
related to the molecular structure of the system and degree of molecular
activity is called as microscopic energy.
Microscopic energy are; translational, rotational, vibrational, thermal,
ATP(Adenosine triphosphate).
Types of Microscopic Energy
• As temperature increases Internal energy also increases, because as molecule
possess higher kinetic energy.
• The average velocity and degree of activity of molecule are depend on the
temperature.
• Internal energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energy. This internal
energy of the system associated with the kinetic energy is called sensible heat
or sensible energy. Which depend upon the temperature.

Pv=mRT  P=
As pressure decreases and temperature increases; density will decrease.
What is specific heat?
It is energy required to raise the temperature a the unit mass of the substance by
one degree. (kJ/kg.K)
In thermo dynamics, we are interested in two kinds of specific heats:
• specific heat at constant volume (Cv) & specific heat at constant pressure (Cp).
• The specific heat at constant volume Cv can be viewed as the energy required
to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree as the
volume is held constant.
• The energy required to do the same as the pressure is held constant is the
specific heat at constant pressure Cp.
• Cp>Cv; because at constant pressure system is allowed to expand. And for this
expansion, work must also be supplied to the system
Cp=Cv + R
Energy transfer from the system – work
Energy transfer to the system - heat
What is Heat flux?
Rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the direction of heat transfer.
Where,
Q is rate of heat transfer(time derivative)
A is area

Q=mCv (T2-T1) ----- amount of heat transfer (kJ)

----- rate of heat transfer (W)
----- heat flux (W/m^2)

Total Cost=Q x unit cost of energy

 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
There are mainly 3 types of heat transfer:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

Conduction:
Conduction is the transfer of energy from more energetic particle of the substance
to adjacent less energetic particle as result of interaction b/w 2 particle.
Conduction can take place in solid liquid and gas
In liquid and gas conduction happens due to collision and diffusion of molecule
during random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and
the energy transport by free electrons.
• We know that wrapping a hot water tank with glass wool (an insulating material)
reduces the rate of heat loss from the tank. The thicker the insulation, the
smaller the heat loss.
Rate of heat transfer is directly propositional to temperature difference and the
area normal to the direction of the heat transfer
Rate of heat transfer is inversely propositional to the thickness of the material.
Thermal conductivity(k)
• Cp 4.18 kJ/kg · °C for water and Cp 0.45 kJ/kg · °C for iron at room temperature, which
indicates that water can store almost 10 times the energy that iron can per unit mass.
• the thermal conductivity k is a measure of a material’s ability to conduct heat. For
example, k 0.608 W/m · °C for water and k 80.2 W/m · °C for iron at room
temperature, which indicates that iron conducts heat more than 100 times faster
than water can.
• Water is poor conductivity of heat but it is excellent medium to store energy
Define thermal conductivity(k)
Rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of material per unit area per unit
temperature difference.
It is the measure of ability of material to conduct heat.
Diamond, Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminium, Iron, Mercury, Glass, Brick, Water, Human
skin.
• Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy. This kinetic energy is due
to particle vibration, rotation, translation motion.
The kinetic theory of gases predicts and the experiments confirm that the
thermal conductivity of gases is proportional to the square root of the
absolute temperature (T), and inversely proportional to the square root of
the molar mass (M)
• Thermal conductivity of gas increase as temperature increase.
• Thermal conductivity of water decrease with increase in temperature.
• Conductivity of both water and gas decrease as molar mass increase.

The product Cp, which is frequently encountered in heat transfer analysis, is

called the heat capacity of a material.
Heat capacity:- how much energy a material stores per unit volume.

Thermal diffusivity
It is the property of the material, that represent how fast heat diffuses through a
material
convection
• It is the mode of heat transfer between solid and
liquid or gas that is in motion.
• It involves combination effect of conduction and fluid
motion.
• Heat transfer between solid surface and adjacent
fluid layer is conduction mode, because of no slip
condition of the fluid
• If the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by
external mean(fan pump wind) then it is call ed
forced convection.
• free convection if the fluid motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are induced by density
differences due to the variation of temperature in the
fluid
• The rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be proportional to the
temperature difference, and is conveniently expressed by Newton’s law of
cooling
h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2· °C
As is the surface area through which convection takes place
Ts is the surface temperature
T is the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.

k (thermal conductivity) is property of the material, but h(convective heat

transfer coefficient) is not the property of material.
Radiation

It is the energy emitted by the matter in the form of electromagnetic waves as a result
of change in electronic configuration of the atom or molecule.
The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a blackbody,
and the radiation emitted by a black body is called blackbody radiation

is emissivity and is absorptivity , are the property of the surface

For black body =1 , black body is perfect absorber because it is perfect emitter.
Emissivity and absorptivity is depend upon temperature and the wavelength of the
radiation.
The difference between the rates of radiation emitted by the surface and the radiation
absorbed is the net radiation heat transfer.
• If the rate of radiation ab sorption is greater than the rate of radiation emission, the
surface is said to be gaining energy by radiation.
• Emissive power is the total amount of radiation emitted by a body per unit area
& time.
• Heat transfer by radiation is given by Setfan- Botzman law
Setfan botzman law:
It states that emissive power of the black body is directly proportional to fourth
power of its absolute temperature.

is Stefen boltman constant how's value is 5.669x10^-8W/m^2K^4

Simultaneous heat transfer mechanism
• Heat transfer in opaque solid is through
conduction mode
• Heat transfer in semi-transparent solid is through
both conduction and radiation
• Thus, solid may involve conduction and radiation
but not convection(inside).
• However solid may involve heat transfer by
convection and/or radiation on its surfaces
exposed to a fluid or other surface
Mechanism of microwave
• Food is cooked in a microwave oven by absorbing the electromagnetic
radiation energy generated by the microwave tube, called the magnetron.
• Radiation emitted by the magnetron is not thermal radiation since it is not due
to temperature of the magnetron.
• Radiation emitted by conversion of electric energy into electromagnetic
radiation at specific wavelength.
• Food is cooked in a microwave oven by absorbing the electromagnetic radiation
energy generated by the microwave tube, called the magnetron
Thermal resistance
• Thermal conductance; which can be defined as heat flow per unit time across
the unit area when the temperature gradient is unit.

• Thermal resistance for conduction is the reciprocal of thermal conductance.

• Thermal resistance for convection is

• Thermal resistance for radiation is

Heat conduction equation
• Heat transfer have both magnitude and direction.
• Heat conduction in a medium is generally 3-dimentional and time
dependance.
• Heat conduction is defined in the coordinate system to know the direction
of the heat transfer, we can work with a coordinate system and indicate
direction with plus or minus signs.
• The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the temperature
difference, and the larger the temperature difference, the larger the rate of
heat transfer
Heat generation
Heat transfer from extended
surfaces.
• The term ‘extended surface’ is commonly used in reference to a solid that experiences
energy transfer by conduction and convection between its boundary and surroundings.

• When the temperatures Ts and T∞ are fixed by design considerations, there are only two
ways to increase the heat transfer rate : (i) to increase the convection coefficient h, or (ii)
to increase the surface area A.
• To compensate low heat transfer coefficient, the surface area is extended for a given
temperature difference between surface and its surroundings. These extended surfaces
are called fins.
• The fins are normally thin strips of highly conducting metals such as aluminum, copper,
brass etc. The fins enhance the heat transfer rate from a surface by exposing larger
surface area to convection
• Generally, the fins are used on the surfaces where the heat transfer coefficient is very low.
Type of fins

• Longitudinal: It is a straight rectangular fin

attached to a plane wall. It may be of uniform
cross-sectional area, or its cross-sectional area may
vary along its length to form a triangular, parabolic
or trapezoidal shape
• Annular: An annular fin is a fin that is
circumferentially attached to a cylinder and its
cross-section varies with radius from center line of
cylinder.
• Spine: In contrast, a pin fin, or spine is an extended
surface of circular cross-section whose diameter is
much smaller than its length. The pin fins may also
be of uniform or non-uniform cross-section.
• The fins of triangular and parabolic profiles contain less material and are
more efficient than the fins of rectangular profiles.

Long fins

Short fins
Fins performance
Fins Effectiveness
• The main function of Fins are used to increase the rate of heat transfer by
increasing the surface area.
• Sometime adding fins doesn’t show any effect… sometimes adding fins may
reduce the heat transfer.
• This reason, there is no assurance that the heat transfer rate will be increased
through the use of fins.
• Therefore, a parameter fin effectiveness justifies the use of the fin, if the value
is greater than 1.
• Some observations with use of fins are :
(i) An effectiveness εfin = 1, indicates that the addition
of fins to the surface does not affect the heat
transfer rate at all.
(ii) An effectiveness εfin < 1, indicates that the fin
actually acts as insulation and decreasing the heat
transfer rate from the surface. It may occur, if fin of low
thermal conductivity materials is used.
(iii) An effectiveness εfin > 1, indicates that fins are
increasing the heat transfer rate from the surface.
How to increase the effectiveness of fins

• Fins effectiveness can be increased by the choice of material of high thermal

conductivity.
• The fin effectiveness is also enhanced by increasing the ratio of perimeter to
cross-sectional area of the fin.
• The use of fins can be better justified under conditions for which the convection
heat transfer co efficient is small.
Fin efficiency

• The heat flows from the surface to the fin by conduction

and from the fin to the surrounding medium by convection.
• The convection from the fin surface causes gradually
temperature drop along the fin length.
• The temperature drops along the fin length and the
resulting heat dissipation from the fin will be less due to
decreasing temperature difference T(x) – T∞ towards the fin
tip. A parameter called the fin efficiency.
Effectiveness