Personality

Definition
• PERSONALITY – psychologists usually mean the relatively stable and consistent ways of
thinking, feeling and acting that make a person unique; an individual that is distinct
from everyone else.
• Personality traits are a combination of relatively enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings,
and behaviours that reflect the tendency to respond in certain ways under certain
circumstances.
• Psychologists are interested in finding out:
o what factor determines personality – Nature (our genes) or Nurture (the
environment and our experiences)
o how personality develops
o how it influences our behaviour – can it predict how we will behave in the future?
o how we can measure it.
Science of Personality: Empirical
Evidence
• Participants:
o Twins reared together or apart (Minnesota Twin Studies, 1990; Twin and
Multiple birth Registry)
o Adoption studies comparing adopted children with biological and adopted
family members
• Key Findings:
o Personality traits are moderately heritable – between 20-60% heritability
Neuroticism (emotionally unstable) has 48% heritability.
o Traits can predict various lifetime outcomes, including psychopathology
(i.e. mental illness or neuropsychiatric diseases).
o Findings from genetic studies have shown that personality traits are highly
polygenic, i.e., controlled by multiple genes and their interactions.
• What are 'twin studies'? ([Link])
Personality +
Behaviour
• One of the reasons that people are interested in
personality is because of its role in how we
interact with our world.
• Our personalities affect how we interpret and
react to our world.
• The child who is anxious and suspicious is much
more likely to interpret an accidental bump in the
playground as deliberate and aggressive than the
child who is confident and trusting.
• A calm, resilient child may hardly notice his or her
mother’s scolding while his or her less confident
and emotional sibling may be reduced to tears.
Personality +
Behaviour
• Our personality can affect our behaviour in less
direct ways. Our personalities help to create the
situations in which we find ourselves.
• A friendly outgoing toddler is much more likely to
be picked up and cuddled than one who is shy or
aloof. The cuddled child is more likely to be
trusting in similar situations.
• As we get older our personalities lead us to
choose different environments. The friends we
make, the clothes we wear and the music we
listen to are all part of the environment we have
chosen and, to a large extent, reflect our
personalities.
Personality Theories

Trait Theory

Humanistic Theory

Psychodynamic Approach
Trait Theory
Basic Assumptions:

• Traits have a genetic basis; hence, traits can be used to predict behaviour.

o Traits are stable over time.

o Traits are consistent across situations.

• Trait dimensions are described as a continuum – Individual differences arise because

personality consists of a combination of different traits expressed in different degrees.
Trait Theorist:
HANS EYSENCK (1916-1997)
• German Psychologist who practiced in England
• Published with wife, Sybil
• Identified 2 dimensions of personality in 1963 and
added 1 (Psychoticism) in 1976
Introversion – Extraversion
Neuroticism (Unstable) – Emotional Stability (Stable)
Psychoticism (Toughminded) – Empathy
(Tenderminded)
Eysenck
Wheel
• Character traits account for
consistency of behaviour in different
situations

• Traits can be quantified using

personality inventories
Eysenck Trait Theory
Psychoticism – trait dimension added later (1976)
Characteristics in the Psychoticism continuum:
(HIGH)  (LOW)
• Toughmindedness  Tendermindedness
• Antisocial  Friendly
• Insensitive  Caring
• Cold  Warm
Stability - Neuroticism
• Eysenck hypothesised that people higher on
the instability scale are more likely to
experience more frequent and rapid response
from their SNS (somatic nervous system)
leaving them more prone to neurotic
disorders.​
• Neuroticism refers to the level of emotional
stability. Individuals who are high on the
neurotic dimension tend to be highly anxious
and are more prone to mood disorders
alongside heightened emotions. In contrast,
individuals who are low on this dimension
tend to be calm and emotionally stable.​
Stability - Neuroticism
• Eysenck believed that individuals tend to lie
in the middle of the continuum with few
people scoring high on one end. ​
• Individuals who score high on the
continuum are likely to have personality
traits that leave them susceptible to mental
illness and personality disorders e.g., people
who have OCD or experience phobias are
more likely to be introverts whereas people
who have poor impulse control and
dissociative disorders tend to be extroverts.​
Psychoticis
m
• Psychoticism is characterized
by aggression, impulsivity,
aloofness, and antisocial
behaviour, indicating a
susceptibility to psychosis and
psychopathic disorders.​
• People who score high on this
continuum tend to find it difficult
to maintain stable relationships,
are non-conformists, hostile and
anti-social. ​
• In contrast people who score low
tend to high impulse control—
they are more altruistic,
empathetic, cooperative, and
conventional.​
Trait Theorist: McCrae + Costa

• 1990 - Present
• Identified the Big Five
Personality Trait
Dimensions:
Openness/Open-
mindedness –
Conscientiousness –
Extraversion –
Agreeableness –
Neuroticism [OCEAN]
The Five Factor
Model of Personality
(FFM)​

• Proposed by McRae & Costa, FFM is the

mostly widely accepted theory of personality
by Psychologists to date. ​
• Given its name, the model proposed that
personality traits can be classified into five
main traits. ​
• Openness, Conscientiousness,
Extraversion, Agreeableness and
Neuroticism. (OCEAN or CANOE)​
• Research has shown that the five traits
identified by the model can be applied across
cultures and that the traits stay relatively
stable across time, even in adversity. ​
Trait Explanations​
• Openness relates to an individual’s sense of experience and wiliness
to try new things.​
• Conscientious relates to one’s desire to do well.​
• Extroverts are outgoing and naturally curious.​
• Agreeableness relates to how cooperative and accommodating one
is.​
• Neuroticism Costa and McCrae have included neuroticism into the Big
Five traits which refers to emotional stability. ​
• Take the Test: Are you curious about your traits? Complete The BIG 5
Personality test:​
• [Link]
 • Studies have shown that maturation may have an impact on the five traits. ​

FFM Changes • As people age, they tend to become less extraverted, less neurotic, and less
open to the experience. ​

over time? • Agreeableness and conscientiousness, on the other hand, tend to increase as
people grow older. (What Are the Big 5 Personality Traits? 2021)​
Five Factor Model of
Personality
DESCRIPTION OF TRAIT CONTINUUM
TRAIT DIMENSIONS
(Low to High)
Calm   Anxious
EMOTIONAL STABILITY vs Vulnerable   Hardy
NEUROTICISM Rational   Emotional
Loner   Joiner
INTRAVERSION vs EXTRAVERSION Quiet   Talkative
Passive   Assertive
Unadventurous   Daring
CLOSED-MINDEDNESS vs OPENNESS Conventional   Original
Traditional   Bold
Suspicious   Trusting
DISAGREEABLENESS vs Critical   Lenient
AGREEABLENESS Irritable   Good-natured
Lazy   Hardworking
CARELESSNESS vs Negligent   Diligent
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS Disorganized   Well-organized
Personality
Tests

PERSONALITY TRAITS
• Eysenck’s Personality Traits (E-N-P
Inventory)
[Link]
.html
Personality Traits vs
Personality Types

• Personality Trait Theorists emphasize individuality and

uniqueness of characteristics that are durable and
produce predictable effects on behavior.
• Personality Type Theorists emphasize similarities in
characteristics.
• A Personality type represents a collection of traits that
occur together which a group of people share.
• People that are the same personality type would fit in
similar social conditions (person – environment fit).
Hence, it is used to predict career paths that are more
suitable to certain personality types.
Myers-
Briggs 16
Personali
ty Types
The Myer-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)​

The Myer-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was developed based on the work of Carl G. Jung, (1971). ​

The MBTI can help promote personal growth due to the wide application of the measure. Application of
the results can help people understand their emotions and why they respond in certain ways in various
circumstances. ​

More commonly employers, schools and universities are using the MBTI to help individuals identify
suitable career choices based on their personality.​

The MBTI is also used to help identify differences between people that can cause conflict, particularly in
the workplace. ​
Development of MBTI ​
• According to Jung’s theory of psychological types, people can be
characterised by their preference of general attitude against 3 trait
continuums:
• Extraverted [E] versus Introverted [I]​
• Sensing [S] versus Intuition [N]​
• Thinking [T] versus Feeling [F]​
• Isabel Myers and her mother Katherine Briggs (1980), researchers of
Jung’s theory, added a fourth element:​
• Judging [J] versus Perceiving [P]​
Holland’s Six Occupational
Personality Types
Personalit PERSONALITY TYPES
• Myers-Briggs 16 Personality types

y [Link]
est

Inventory • Holland’s Six Occupational Personality Types (for

vocational trades)

(test) [Link]
Humanistic Theory

FOCUS of PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT:
THEORISTS: Abraham
NURTURE FACTORS
Maslow and Carl Rogers
(ENVIRONMENT &
SOCIAL INFLUENCES)
Humanistic
Theories

Human-centred approach:
• Focus is on healthy personalities

• Basic assumptions:
 people are inherently good;
 will strive to achieve our
potential

• Through this journey of attaining

our potential comes our personality.
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
• Proposed a hierarchy of needs that influence behaviour
• People must have most basic needs met before trying to meet higher
level needs.
• Gratification of each need is required before moving upwards to the
next level.
• At the very top of the hierarchy is the need for self-actualisation, the
drive towards growth, self-expression, creativity and the achievement
of one’s highest unique potential.
• Our journey to self-actualisation influences the characteristics we
eventually acquire
• People who are fully self-actualised are rare, but some of their
characteristics are self-accepting, highly self-aware, private,
independent, creative and able to enjoy life.
Maslow’s
Hierarch
y of
Needs
 Physiological Needs
• Need to satisfy hunger and thirst.

Safety Needs
• Need to feel safe, secure and stable.

Love and Belonging Needs

Hierarchy of

• Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted.

Esteem Needs
• Need for self-esteem, achievement and independence; need for respect from
others.

Self-actualisation Needs
Needs

• Need to live up to one’s fullest potential.

Transcendence Needs
• Helping others to achieve self-actualisation.
• Added later by Maslow as he felt you can’t achieve self-actualisation if you
have a higher goal outside of one’s self.
Maslow’s Methodology

Examined great people who he felt achieved their full potential –

Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, healthiest 1% of healthy college students

Looked at their similarities

Open, self-aware, secure in who they are, enjoy deep relationships,

tackle problems without worrying about others’ opinions.
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
• Also believed that people are born good and strive to reach full
potential in life.
• Rogers also emphasised the importance of free will; that is, we
are all individuals who freely choose to behave in whatever way
we desire, and we act according to that choice.
• In describing the development of personality, Rogers likened
each person to the seed of an enormous tree.
• He believed that each of us contains within ourselves an
enormous potential to grow and develop for the rest our lives,
unless something in the environment prevents this from
happening.
• Traumas, however, can often be overcome with some support
and guidance.
 According to Rogers, whether or not an individual
achieves their full potential (self-actualisation)
depends on three key factors:
Self- 1. The way others treat them (that is, whether
they are accepted or rejected by others –
Actualisati unconditional positive regard)
2. How they view themselves (self-concept)
on 3. How effectively they can deal with negative
influences in their life that can cause anxiety
or conflict.
Self-Concept
• Refers to all the perceptions and beliefs an individual has about themselves including
their nature, unique qualities, and their typical behaviour.
• He believed that childhood is a critical time for the development of personality and that
social relationships a child experiences during that time have lasting effects on the
development of their self-concept.
• The idea we develop of who we are is built up, over time, from childhood, through
interactions with others in our environment.
• According to Rogers, the role of other people in our attempts to self-actualise and
develop a positive self-concept is very significant.
The Role of Others
• People who are important to us can assist our self-actualising in three
important ways:
1. By being genuine ( by being honest and open with their feelings
towards us).
2. By being accepting (By valuing us for what we are regardless of our
short-comings so that we experience unconditional positive regards).
3. By being empathetic (by being able to put themselves in our position
and fully understand , from our point of view, how we are feel)
According to Rogers, if we experience genuineness, acceptance and
empathy from significant people in our lives, we have the right
environmental conditions in which to grow and be fulfilled as human beings
and therefore to self-actualise.
Self-image, ideal-
self and true self
• Rogers believed that a well-adjusted and happy individual is
someone whose self-image (the person you think you are),
ideal self (the person you want to be) and true self (the
person you actually are) are all congruent (match), or are fairly
similar across many aspects of our view of self.
• For example if it is important to you to be generous (ideal
self), you believe you are generous (self-image), and you
behave in a generous manner (true self), then by Rogers’
theory it could be said that would be fairly content and happy
with yourself.
Self-image, ideal-self and true
If the self-image, true self and ideal self are different, then you are likely to experience
anxiety or unhappiness.

For example, if you would like to be generous (ideal self), and you think you are generous
(self-image) but you behave possessively (true self), then you are likely to receive negative
feedback from others, causing confusion and dissatisfaction within yourself.

A mentally healthy, well-adjusted, fully functioning person has a flexible, constantly

evolving self-concept. They are open to new experiences, are realistic and capable of
changing their responses as required in different situations
Congruence Incongruence

Self-
image
Self-
Image

Ideal True Ideal True

self self
Self Self
Humanistic
Personality
Inventory
• Rosenberg’s Self Esteem Test –
[Link]
sts/[Link]

• Maslow’s Inventory Test –

[Link]
.html
Psychodynamic Approach
• Founder - Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)​
• Observations in clinical practice​
• Personality = result of internal conflicts
and individuals resolution of these​
• Psychoanalytic Theory - What Freud thought of Personality ([Link])
 CONCEPT 1​
The human psyche
(mind) comprises
three levels:
conscious (ego),
preconscious and
the unconscious
(id).​
Concept
2
• Freud later
developed his theory
to include the
concept of the
psyche having three
interactive structures
known as the Id,
Ego, Super-ego​
Concept 3
• Freud believed that childhood experience
plays a significant role in shaping
personality and hence our behaviour as
adults.​
• This led to the development of Freud’s most
controversial and criticised theory of
personality, psychosexual development.​
• Freud outlined five developmental stages
which are focused on different erogenous
zones that are pleasure seeking. ​
• Each stage is unique, and should a child
become over or under gratified it would
cause them to become fixated which
results in maladaptive behaviours as
adults and prone to mental illness.​
Defence
Mechanis
ms
Defence Mechanisms:
Freudian Defense Mechani
sms – YouTube
Identify
the
defence
mechanis
m
Biology and Personality
• Researchers have identified a link between
personality and activation of the ANS
(autonomic nervous system) and suggest
that extroverts thrive on higher levels of
ANS stimulation which is provided during
social interactions. This enables
extroverts to stay within the stable
dimension. ​
• Whereas introverts need less ANS
activation to remain in the stable domain
hence feeling more comfortable in solitude. ​
Personalit
y
Assessme
nts
 • Personality testing and assessments are
designed to measure patterns of

How characteristics or traits that people

demonstrate in various situations. ​

personalit • Contemporary personality assessments

can be used to clarify a clinical
y diagnosis of a mental health disorder or
personality disorder. ​
assessme • They may provide a guide for the types
of therapy best suited to a client
nts are requiring professional treatment and are
most helpful at predicting how people
used​ may respond in different situations​
 • Employers are one of the key users of personality
assessment, and they are used for career and job
matching. ​
Employme • Given that traits are relatively stable personal

nt characteristics, we are able to predict how people

will behave in the future if we know and
understand their personality traits now​
What
are they
used
for?
 • Standardisation refers to the concept of
consistency, it is about keeping the instructions the
same regardless of where and when the
Standardise assessment is conducted.​
d Self • In Experiments: all the participants receive the
same instructions so that the research can be
Report replicated; this ensures the procedures are reliable.​

Inventories • Self-reports require the participant to complete the

measure or assessment on their own. ​
(Subjective • This is usually completed by responding to a
number of questions and indicating the strength of
Measures)​ attitude or belief, e.g., a range from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).​
Validity + Reliability:
Personality
Assessments
Test-retest reliability ​
• Assessing the same person on two different
occasions which shows the extent to which
the test produces the same answers. ​
• Tests, questionnaires and other
measurement tools need to give consistent
results over time and items in the test need
to be consistent with each other.​
Inter-observer reliability ​
• the extent to which there is agreement
between two or more observers. The extent
to which different observers, scoring the
same participants, achieve consistency.​
Ethics

• Personality assessments should only

ever be conducted by a trained
psychologist. ​
• There are many concerns regarding
personality assessments including:
inappropriate use of tests,
assessment techniques,
confidentiality, cultural bias, invasion
of privacy, continued use of tests
despite lacking validity. ​
Is it beneficial to know
personality traits?
• Understanding personalities can help in making situations
easier. ​
• Individuals can thrive, avoid conflict. ​
• Work on particular stressful projects. ​
• Personality assessments are useful, think about armed
forces. Why should they screen applicants? ​
• Could exclude someone from promotion, discrimination. ​
• Personality of self and others is a key determinate of
social relationships. It affects longevity and quality of
relationships. ​
• On a basic level we tend to engage with peers who have
similar personality traits to our own: shared beliefs,
interests and experiences. ​
• So why do opposites sometimes attract? It is alluring. ​
Inkblot
tests
• How does the Rorschach inkblot t
est work? - Damion Searls (youtu
[Link])