FOUNDATIONS OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
UNIT-IV
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Course code and Title 24EECE2231 FEEE
CONTENTS
Introduction
Ideal OP-AMP
Inverting Configuration
Non-inverting Configuration
Voltage follower
Adder or Summing Amplifier
Subtractor or Difference Amplifier
Difference amplifiers(Single Op-amp & two Op-
amps)
Op-amp as Integrator
Op-amp as Differentiator
Applications of OP-AMP
INTRODUCTION
An operational amplifier is an Amplifier which amplifies the signal
and member of Linear integrated circuits.
It is a high gain, negative feedback amplifier.
It can perform mathematical operations such as addition,
subtraction, integration and differentiation.
It is used in voltage regulators, oscillator circuits, pulse
generators, comparators, Analog to Digital and Digital to Analog
converters, analog computers etc.
It is popularly known as OP-AMP.
It can amplify both d.c and a.c input signals.
OP-AMP SYMBOL
(+) or ‘b’ is non-inverting terminal
(-) or ‘a’ is inverting terminal
‘a’ and ‘b’ input terminals
‘c’ output terminals
Positive voltage input V2 is applied to terminal ‘b’ and negative
voltage input V1 is applied to terminal ‘a’.
Output voltage V0 = A(Vid) = A (V2-V1)
where A is the open loop gain of the amplifier
THE IDEAL OP-AMP (INVERTING)
Output voltage V0 = A(Vid) = A (0-V1) = -AV1
THE IDEAL OP-AMP (NON INVERTING)
Output voltage V0 = A(Vid) = A (V2 - 0) = AV2
THE IDEAL OP-AMP: EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT
Equivalent circuit is helpful in analyzing the operating
principle of OP-AMP and in observing effects of feedback.
Ri is the input resistance appearing between inverting
and non-inverting terminals.
R0 is the output resistance which is Thevenin equivalent
resistance looking back from output terminals of OP-AMP.
‘AVid’ is the equivalent Thevenin voltage source.
THE IDEAL OP-AMP:
CHARACTERISTICS
Ideal OP-AMP has following characteristics:
An infinite voltage gain. i.e. A =
An infinite bandwidth. i.e., any frequency signal ranging 0 to
E
Course code and Title : EECE1001-BEE
Hz can be amplified without any distortion.
Infinite input resistance. i.e., Ri = . Hence, input current
is zero and no loading effect. OP-AMP is a voltage-controlled
device.
Zero output resistance. i.e., R0 = 0. Hence, V0 is
independent of the output resistance.
When input signal voltage is zero, the output signal will also
be zero.
Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)is infinite.
Infinite slew rate. i.e., change in output voltage occurs
simultaneously with the input voltage changes.
Course code and Title : EECE1001-BEE
E
THE IDEAL OP-AMP:
CHARACTERISTICS
THE IDEAL OP-AMP: TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS
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Course code and Title : EECE1001-BEE
Voltage transfer characteristic curve is drawn between input
(Vid) and output (V0) voltages.
Saturation of output voltage takes place once the differential
input voltage ‘Vid’ reaches a threshold voltage ‘Vth’.
The saturation voltage is approximately equal to supply
voltage for all practical considerations.
Slope of the curve represents the gain ‘A’.
THE INVERTING CONFIGURATION: OPEN LOOP
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Course code and Title : EECE1001-BEE
Input signal is applied to inverting input terminal.
The non-inverting terminal is grounded. i.e. V 2 = 0.
Output voltage V0 = AOL(Vid) = AOL (0-V1) = - AOLV1.
Where AOL is open loop voltage gain which is very high.
The negative sign indicates that output is 180 0 out of phase with respect to
input.
As AOL is very high and –Vsat< V0<Vsat,
Hence V0 oscillates between +Vsat and -Vsat.
Hence, very small input voltages drives the output to saturation level.
So, only the small signals of the order of micro volts can only be amplified
accurately without distortion.
Signals of high amplitudes can be applied by using feedback in the OP-AMP.
THE INVERTING CONFIGURATION: CLOSED LOOP
Figure shows basic inverting amplifier with feedback resistance R f .
In this mode positive input terminal is grounded and the signal is
applied to the negative terminal.
V1 may be a d.c. or a.c. voltage signal with in the bandwidth of
amplifier.
Output signal is fed back to the inverting input terminal through
feedback resistance Rf .
The feedback current is algebraically added point G.
The point G, although not connected to ground, but is held virtually
at ground potential irrespective of V1 and V0.
THE INVERTING CONFIGURATION: CLOSED LOOP
At point G, i1= i2.
Output voltage
Closed loop gain
If Rf= R1 = 1, then A = -1, and the amplifier is
called unity gain amplifier with 1800 phase
inversion.
CONCEPT OF VIRTUAL GROUND
We know V0 = A (V+- V-) = A (Vid)
Gain of the amplifier is of order of 2X105
Let us take the output voltage V0 = 10V
V0 =10 = 2X105(Vid)
Hence, Vid =
Vid = V+- V- = 0
V+ =Vi and V- = 0 as it is grounded.
Hence, V = 0 and point G acts as virtual ground.
THE NON-INVERTING CONFIGURATION: OPEN LOOP
Input signal is applied to non-inverting input terminal.
The inverting terminal is grounded. i.e. V1= 0.
Output voltage V0 = AOL(Vid) = AOL(V2 –V1) = AOLV2.
Where AOL is open loop voltage gain which is very high.
The output is in phase with respect to input.
As AOL is very high and –Vsat< V0<Vsat,
Hence V0 oscillates between +Vsat and -Vsat.
Hence, very small input voltages drives the output to saturation level.
So, only the small signals of the order of micro volts can only be amplified
accurately without distortion.
Signals of high amplitudes can be applied by using feedback in the OP-AMP.
THE NON-INVERTING CONFIGURATION: CLOSED LOOP
Figure shows basic non-inverting amplifier with feedback
resistance Rf . In this mode negative input terminal is grounded
through R1and the signal is applied to the positive terminal.
Output signal is fed back to the inverting input terminal
through feedback resistance Rf .
The potential of point G, Vi= V+= V2
The feedback current is algebraically added point G.
Voltage across R1 is equal to V2 and Rf is (V0 –V2).
THE NON-INVERTING CONFIGURATION: CLOSED LOOP
At point G, i1= i2.
,
Output voltage
Closed loop gain
A is always positive and greater than one and acts
as positive scaler.
VOLTAGE FOLLOWER
In this circuit Rf = 1,
V0 = Vi = V2
Voltage gain Av = 1.
Output voltage is equal and in phase with the input
and the OP-AMP circuit acts as a voltage follower.
It is also called as source follower, isolating
amplifier and buffer amplifier.
ADDER OR SUMMING AMPLIFIER:
In analog computers OP-AMP circuits are used as summing
amplifier circuit.
Figure shows three input summing amplifier circuit.
In the circuit
If R1=R2=R3=Rand substituting Vi= 0 (Virtual ground)
If R= 3Rf , the same circuit can be used for averaging and
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS: OPEN LOOP
A differential amplifier amplifies the difference
between two voltages V1 and V2 applied at both
input terminals.
Their amplified difference appears at the output
terminal.
V0 = A(V2-V1)
SUBTRACTOR OR DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER
WITH TWO OP-AMPS
SINGLE OP-AMP DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
It is a combination of inverting and non-inverting
amplifiers.
To calculate output voltage super position theorem
is applied.
Vout is equal to sum of the individual responses of
Vin1 and Vin2.
i.e Vout = Vout1 + Vout2
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS: CLOSED LOOP
Calculation of Vout1:
as Riis infinitely large, V1 acts as virtual ground and
is equal to zero.
, but
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS: CLOSED LOOP
Calculation of Vout2:
as Riis infinitely large, V1 V2 =
, and substituting V1=V2
If R2=R1 and R3 = Rf, then
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS: CLOSED LOOP
Vout = Vout1 + Vout2
The differential voltage gain
Course code and Title : EECE1001-BEE
E
Applications of OP-AMP
1) Wave form Convertor
2) Oscillator
3) Active Filter
4) Voltage Comparator
5) Analog to Digital Convertor (ADC) & Digital to Analog Convertor (DAC)
6) Integrator
7) Differentiator
8) Voltage follower
9) Adder
10) Subtractor