Structure and composition of

the Atmosphere
 KEY CONCEPT:
Systems

ATL SKILLS:
- Communication
skills RELATED
- Critical thinking CONCEPTS:
skills Causality,
- Creative thinking diversity,
skills processes
- Organization skills
- Affective skills

OBJECTIVES:
- Knowing and
understanding (A) GLOBAL CONTEXT:
- Investigation (B) Scientific and
technical
- Thinking critically innovation
(D)
 INQUIRY QUESTIONS AND AIMS KEY TERMS

• To define an atmosphere • Atmosphere

• • Weather
To know the difference between weather and climate
• Climate
• To know how to explain structure and composition of the
• Meteorology and climatology
atmosphere
• Reflection
• To know how to explain greenhouse effect, and the connection
• Absorbtion
between greenhouse effect and climate change
• Scattering
• To know how to explain the reflection and absorbtion of solar • Albedo
radiation • Greenhouse effect
• To know the difference between short wave and long wave • Short wave radiation
radiation • Long wave radiation
• To explain global factors affecting insolation
• Weather refers to the state of the Climate is concerned with the long-term
atmosphere at a local level, usually bahaviour of the atmosphere in a specific area.
on a short timescale of minutes to Climatic characteristics are represented by data on
months. It emphasises aspects of the temperature, pressure, wind, precipitation,
atmosphere that affect human humidity, etc., which are used to calculate daily,
activity, such as sunshine, cloud, monthly and yearly averages and to build up
wind, rainfall, humidity and global patterns.
temperature.
• Meteorology is the • Climatology is the study of
interdisciplinary scientific climate, scientifically
study of the atmosphere. defined as weather
• From Greek μετέωρος conditions averaged over a
metéōros "μετα- meta- period of time.
"above" and ἀείρω aeiro "I • From Greek κλίμα, klima,
lift up") and -λογία -logia "place, zone"; and -λογία, -
"-(o)logy". logia
• Climate can be displayed on a graph.
• Two pieces of information:
 the temperature is shown as a line
 the rainfall is displayed as bars.
• The figures are usually calculated as an average over a number of years.
 Atmospheric gases
• The various gases which combine to form the atmosphere are permanent (nitrogen and
oxygen), variable (water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone, pollutants), inert (argon, helium,
neon, krypton) and dust

Of these, nitrogen and oxgen together

make up 99% by volume.

Of the others, water vapour, ozone, and

carbon dioxide have an importance far
beyond their seemingly small amounts, it is
the depletion of ozone, and the increase of
carbon dioxide which are causeing concern
to scientist.
 Structure and composition of the atmosphere

• The atmosphere is an envelop of transparent, odourless gases held to the Earth by

gravitational attraction. While the furthest limit of the atmosphere is said by
international convention to be at 1000 km, most of the atmosphere, and therefore our
climate and weather, is concentrated within 16 km of the Earth’s surface at the Equator
and 8 km at the poles.
• 50% of atmospheric mass is within 5,6 km of sea level and 99% is within 40 km.

• Atmospheric pressure decreases rapidly with height but, as recording made by

radiosondes, weather balloons and more recently weather satellites have shown,
temperature changes are more complex.
• Changes in temperature mean that the atmosphere can be conveniently divided into four
distinctive layers, moving outwards from the Earth’s surface.
4. Thermosphere

3. Mesosphere

2. Stratosphere

1. Troposphere
1. Troposphere – tempreatures in this atmospheric layer decrease by 6,4 °C with every 1
km increase in alitude. This is because the Earth’s surface is warmed by incoming solar
radiation whic in turn heats the air next to it by conduction, convection and radiation.
• Pressure falls as the effect of gravity decreases, although wind speeds usually increase
with height.
• The layer is unstable and contains most of the atmosphere’s water vapour, cloud, dust
and pollution.
• The tropopause, which forms the upper limit to the Earth’s climate and weather, is
marked by an isotermal layer where temperatures remain constant despite any increase
in height.
2. Stratosphere is characterised by a steady increase in temperature caused by a
concentration of ozone (O3). This gas absorb incoming ultra-violet (UV) radiation from the
Sun. Winds are light in the lower parts, but increase with height; pressure continues to
fall and the air is dry. The stratosphere, like the two layers above it, acts as a protective
shield against meteorites which usually burn out as they enter the Earth’s gravitational
field.
• The stratopause is another isotermal layer where temperatures don’t change with
increasing height.
3. Mesosphere – temperatures fall
rapidly as there is no water vapour,
cloud, dust or ozone to absorb
incoming radiation. This layer
experiences the atmosphere’s lowest
temperatures (-90 °C) and strongest
winds (nearly 3000 km/hr).
• The mesopause shows no change in
temperature, like the tropopause
and stratopause.

4. Thermosphere – temperatures rise

rapidly with height, perhaps to reach
1500 °C. This is due to an increasing
proportion of atomic oxygen in the
atmosphere which, like ozone,
absorbs incoming UV radiataion.
 Energy in the atmosphere
• The Sun is the Earth’s prime source of energy. The Earth receives energy as incoming
short-wave solar radiation (also referred to as insolation). It is energy that controls our
planet’s climate and weather and which, when converted by photosynthesis in green
plants, supports all forms of life.

• The amount of incoming radiation received by the Earth is determined by four

astronomical factors:
1. The solar constant
2. Distance from the sun
3. Altitude of the sun in the sky
4. Length of day and night
• This figure is theoretical in that it assumes there is no atmosphere around the Earth. In reality,
much insolation is absorbed, reflected and scattered as it passes through the atmosphere
• Absorption of incoming radiation is mainly
by ozone, water vapour, carbon dioxide and
particles of ice and dust. It occurs in, and is
limited to, the infra-red part of the spectrum.
Clouds and, to a lesser extent, the Earth’s
surface reflect considerable amounts of
radiation back into space. The ration
between incoming radiation and the amount
reflected, expressed as a %, is known as the
albedo.
• Where deforestation and overgrazing occur, the albedo increases. The reduces the possibility
of cloud formation and precipitation and increases the risk of desertification.
• Scattering occurs when incoming radiation is diverted by particles of dust, as from volcanoes
and deserts, or by molecules of gas. It takes place in all directions and some of the radiation
will reach the Earth’s surface as diffuse radiation.

• As a result of absorption, reflection and scattering, only about 24% of incoming radiation
reaches the Earth’s surface directly, with a further 21% arriving at ground-level as diffuse
radiation.
• Incoming radiation is converted into heat energy when it reaches the Earth’s surface. As the
ground warms, it radiates energy back into the atmosphere where 94% is absorbed (only 6%
is lost to space) mainly by water vapour and carbon dioxide – the greenhouse effect.
• Without the natural greenhouse effect, which traps so much of the outgoing radiation, world
temperatures would be 33 °C lower than they are at present and life on Earth would be
impossible (During the Ice Age it was only 4°C cooler).
• This outgoing radiation is long-wave or infra-red radiation.
 The heat budget
• Since the Earth is neither warming up nor cooling down, there must be a balance between
incoming insolation and outgoing terrestrial radiation.
• There is a net gain in radiation everywhere on the Earth’s surface except in polar latitudes
which have high albedo surfaces
There is a net loss in radiation throughout the
atmosphere

After balancing the incoming and outgoing

radiation, there is a net surplus between 35 °S
and 40 °N (the difference in latitude is due to
the larger land masses of the northern
hemisphere) and a net deficit to the poleward
sides of those latitudes

This means that there is a positive heat

balance within the torpics and a negative heat
balance both at high latitudes

Two major transfer of heat take place to

prevent tropical areas from overheating
1. Horizontal heat transfers – heat is transferred away from the tropics, thus preventing the
Equator from becoming increasingly hotter and the poles increasingly colder. Winds are
responisble for 80% of this heat transfer, and ocean currents for 20%
2. Vertical heat transfer – heat is also transferred vertically, thus preventing the Earth’s surface
from getting hotter and the atmosphere colder. This is achieved through radiation,
conduction, convection and the transfer of latent heat. Latent heat is the amount of heat
energy needed to change the state of a substance without affecting its temperature. When
ice changes into water or water into vapour, heat is taken up to lep with the processes of
melting and evaporation. This absorption of heat results in the cooling of the atmosphere.
When the process is reversed (vapour condenses into water or water freezes into ice) heat
energy is released and the atmosphere is warmed.
 Global factors affecting insolation

• Factors that influence the amount of insolation received at any point, and therefore its
radiation balance and heat budget, vary considerably over time and space.
• Long term factors:
1. Height above sea level – the atmosphere is not warmed directly by the sun, but by heat
radiated from the Earth’s surface and distributed by conduction and convection. As the
heigh of mountains increases, they present a decreasing area of land surface from
which to heat the surrounding air. In addition, as the density or pressure of the air
decreases, so too does its ability to hold heat.

2. Altitude of the sun – as the angle of the sun in the sky decreases, the land are heated
by a given ray and the depth of atmosphere through which that ray has to pass both
increase. Consequently, the amount of isnolation lost through absorption, scattering
and refelction also increases. Places in lower latitudes therefore have higher
temperatures than those in higher latitudes
3. Land and sea – they differn in their ability to absorb, transfer and radiate heat energy. The
sea is more transparent than the land, and is capable of absorbing heat down to depth of 10
m. Also, the sea has a greater specific heat capacity. During summer, the sea heats up more
slowly than the land. In the winter, the reverse is the case and land surfaces lose heat energy
more rapidly than water.

4. Prevailing winds – the temprature of the wind is determined by its area of origin any by the
characteristics of the surface over which it subsequently blows.

5. Ocean currents – major component in the process of horizontal transfer of heat energy.
Warm current carry water polewards and raise the air temperature of the maritime
environments where they flow. Cold currents carry water towards the Equator and so lower
the temperatures of coastal areas.
• Short-term factors:
1. Seasonal changes – at the spring and autumn equinoxes, when the sun is directly over the
Equator, insolation is distributed equally between both hemispheres. At the summer and
winter solstices when the sun is overhead at the tropics, the hemisphere experiencing
“summer” will receive maximum insolation
2. Length of the day and night – insolation is only received during daylight hours and reaches
its peak at noon.

• Local influences on insolation:

1. Aspect – hillsides alter the angle at which the sun’s rays hit the ground. In the northern
hemisphere, north-facing slopes, being in shadow for most or all of the year, are cooler than
those facing south.
2. Cloud cover – the thicker the cloud, the greater the amount of absorption, reflection and
scattering of insolation and of terrestrial radiation
3. Urbanisation