ATOMS

• Atom is the basic of all matter. They are very small

and consist of even tinier particles. Neutrons, Protons,
and Electrons are the basic particles making up the
atom. They join together with other atoms and create
matter. It takes many atoms to create anything.
• It is the smallest constituent unit of matter that
possess the properties of the chemical element.
Atoms don’t exist independently, instead, they form
ions and molecules which further combine in large
numbers to form matter that we see, feel and touch.
WHAT IS THE SIZE OF AN ATOM?
• The size of an atom is extremely small, much smaller than our
imagination. A layer of an atom as thick as a thin sheet of
paper is formed when more than millions of atoms are stacked
together. It is impossible to measure the size of an isolated
atom because it’s difficult to locate the positions of electrons
surrounding the nucleus.
• However, the size of an atom can be estimated by assuming
that the distance between adjacent atoms is equal to half the
radius of an atom. Atomic radius is generally measured in
nanometres.
ATOM MODEL
• An atomic model is a physical representation of
the structure and composition of an
atom. Atomic models have changed over time
to account for new experimental data. Some
models of the atom include:
•
• Thomson's model
• Also known as the plum pudding model, this
model was proposed in 1898 by J.J. Thomson. It
depicts an atom as a sphere with a uniform
distribution of positive charge, with electrons
embedded in it.
RUTHERFORD‘S MODEL- ALPHA PARTICLE
SCATTERING EXPERIMENT

The major components of the alpha scattering experiment were:

• Gold foil: A thin sheet of gold foil (100 nm) was selected as it has the
thinnest layer of about 1000 atoms.
• 𝛂-particles: they are doubly-charged helium ions with considerably high
energy and a mass of 4u, which is more than the protons of a gold atom.
• Zinc sulfide screen: a fluorescent sheet of zinc sulfide was placed around
the foil to study the deflections.
• 𝛂-particle emitter: generates a high energy beam of 𝛂-particles.
• In this experiment, Rutherford bombarded a thin sheet of gold foil
with high-energy streams of fast-moving 𝛂-particles from the
emitter. He expected that 𝛂-particles would be deflected by small
angles only as the 𝛂-particles were much heavier (4 u mass) than
the protons of a gold atom, but it gave unexpected results. He
saw that:
• Small angles deflected some particles.
• Most particles passed straight(undeflected) through the gold foil
• Few particles are deflected by large angles, and some even
rebound(1 out of 12000 particles)

• Thus he gave the Rutherford Atom Model

OBSERVATIONS OF THE EXPERIMENT
• The following observations were made from the alpha particle scattering
experiment:
• Most of the space inside an atom is empty: As a significant fraction of
particles bombarded on the gold foil passed straight through the foil, it was
concluded that a lot of space inside an atom is empty.
• Distribution of positive charge is non-uniform: Some 𝛂-particles were
deflected by very small angles; hence, it was assumed that positive charge
occupies little space and is non-uniformly distributed.
• All the positive charge is concentrated in a small volume: Few 𝛂-particles,
1 out of 12000, were deflected by an angle of 180 degrees showing that all
the positive charge is concentrated in a very small volume compared to
the total volume of the gold atom.
Rutherford put forward the nuclear model based on the
experiment, which states:
• There is a positively charged center of the atom called
the nucleus, where all the atom’s positive charge is
concentrated. It is very small and around 105 times less
than the atom’s radius. All the mass of the atom is
concentrated here.
• The negatively charged particles surround the atom
and revolve at a very high speed in fixed circular paths
called orbits.
• The positively charged particles (protons) and
negatively charged particles (electrons) are held
together by a powerful electrostatic force of attraction.
 DRAWBACKS
• According to Rutherford, electrons move in circular
orbits around the nucleus. We know by Maxwell’s
theory that any charged particle undergoing circular
motion will experience acceleration and emit
electromagnetic radiation. This would lead to a
shrinking orbit as the revolving electron will lose the
energy and collapse to fall into the nucleus.
• Rutherford could not explain the stability of atoms, as
it highly contradicts the Maxwell theory. According to
the calculations, the electron will collapse in less than
10-8 seconds, making the electron highly unstable.
• Rutherford did not mention anything about the
arrangement of electrons in the orbits, which is also
one drawback
IMPACT PARAMETER
• The scattering of an α-particle from a nucleus depends on its distance of
closest approach to the nucleus or on an equivalent length, called the
impact parameter 'b'.
• The impact parameter is defined as the perpendicular distance of the
velocity vector of the α-particle from the centre of the nucleus, when it is
far away from the atom.
• For large impact parameters, the repulsive force experienced by the α-
particle is weak (because of its inverse square law character) and the α-
particle passes almost undeflected.
• For small impact parameter, the repulsive force is large and so the α-
particle is scattered through large angle.
• For a head-on collision, when the α-particle just aims at the centre of the
nucleus, the impact parameter b=0, scattering angle θ=180°, ie, the α-
particle is reversed back along its original path.
• Thus the shape of the trajectory of the scattered α-particles depends on
the impact parameter and the nature of the potential field.
DISTANCE OF CLOSEST APPROACH
The minimum distance upto which α-particles directly move towards the nucleus and
comes to rest and then retrace their paths. d is distance of the closest approach
ATOMIC SPECTRA
• Atomic spectra is the study of atoms (and atomic ions) through their
interaction with electromagnetic radiation. We all know about the
refraction of light. When light travels from one medium to another, it
either bends towards the normal or away from the normal. The
phenomenon of refraction is mainly attributed to the difference in the
speed of light in various mediums. The speed of light depends upon the
nature of the medium through which it passes.
 • Absorption spectrum
Emission Spectrum • An absorption spectrum is like a
photographic negative of an emission
Whenever electromagnetic radiation
spectrum.
interacts with atoms and molecules of
matter, the electrons in these atoms may • For observing the absorption spectrum,
absorb energy and jump to a higher electromagnetic radiations are
energy state, losing their stability. bombarded on a sample that absorbs
radiation of certain wavelengths.
In order to regain their stability, they
need to move from the higher energy • The wavelength of radiation absorbed
state to the previous lower energy state. by the matter contributes to the
missing wavelength which leaves dark
To accomplish this job, these atoms and spaces in the bright continuous
molecules emit radiation in various spectrum.
regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Each element has its unique line
• This spectrum of radiation emitted by
emission spectrum. The study of the
electrons in the excited atoms or
emission spectrum or absorption
molecules is known as an emission
spectrum is better known as
spectrum.
spectroscopy.
• The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom is a model of the atom that
describes the structure of hydrogen and was developed by Danish
physicist Niels Bohr in 1913.
• What is Bohr’s Model of an Atom?
• The Bohr model of the atom was proposed by Neil Bohr in 1915. It came
into existence with the modification of Rutherford’s model of an atom.
Rutherford’s model introduced the nuclear model of an atom, in which he
explained that a nucleus (positively charged) is surrounded by negatively
charged electrons.
• Bohr theory modified the atomic structure model by explaining that
electrons move in fixed orbitals (shells) and not anywhere in between and
he also explained that each orbit (shell) has a fixed energy. Rutherford
explained the nucleus of an atom and Bohr modified that model into
electrons and their energy levels.
Bohr’s model consists of a small nucleus (positively charged) surrounded by
negative electrons moving around the nucleus in orbits. Bohr found that an
electron located away from the nucleus has more energy, and the electron
which is closer to nucleus has less energy
• Postulates of Bohr’s Model of an Atom
• In an atom, electrons (negatively charged) revolve around the positively charged
nucleus in a definite circular path called orbits or shells.
• Each orbit or shell has a fixed energy and these circular orbits are known as orbital
shells.
• The energy levels are represented by an integer (n=1, 2, 3…) known as
the quantum number. This range of quantum number starts from nucleus side with
n=1 having the lowest energy level. The orbits n=1, 2, 3, 4… are assigned as K, L,
M, N…. shells and when an electron attains the lowest energy level, it is said to be
in the ground state.
• The electrons in an atom move from a lower energy level to a higher energy level
by gaining the required energy and an electron moves from a higher energy level to
lower energy level by losing energy.
• The energy absorbed or emitted is equal to the difference
between the energies of the two energy levels (E1, E2) and is
determined by Plank’s equation.
• ΔE = E2-E1 = h𝜈
• Where,
• ΔE = energy absorbed or emitted

𝜈= frequency of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed

h= Plank’s constant

• The angular momentum of an electron revolving in energy shells is

given by:
• mevr = nh/2π
• Where,
n= number of corresponding energy shell; 1, 2, 3 …..
me= mass of the electron
v= velocity
r=radius
h= Plank’s constant