Chapter 4: Wireless Network Principles

– Introduction of Basic Terminologies

» Frequency
» Signals
» TX and RX
– Frequency Allocation and Regulation
» The case in Ethiopia
» Internationally

– Antennas Fundamentals
– Multiplexing
» Demultiplexing
» Media Access Control
– Wireless Sensor Networks
1
Introduction
• Frequency refers to the electromagnetic range used for
transmitting signals over wireless communication.

• Radio frequency (RF) refers to the range of electromagnetic

wave frequencies that are used for wireless communication.

• Different frequencies can carry different information such as

voice, data,, Video …..

• These frequencies range from about 3kHz to 300 GHz and are
essential for transmitting data over the air without the need for
physical connections, like cables.
Introduction………
[Link]…….
• Light signals use visible light to transmit data or information. They often require a line-of-
sight path between transmitter and receiver, as light waves cannot pass through most solid
objects.
• Examples that uses light:- Fiber Optic Cables, Remote Controls (IR), Li-Fi
• Electric signals rely on electric currents or voltages to represent and convey information.
These signals are commonly used in electronics and wired communication systems.
• UTP, Coper wires, electrical pulse communications are examples
• Electromagnetic signals include any form of electromagnetic wave ranging from radio waves
to X-rays that can propagate through space and transmit information without the need for a
medium. Examples:
• Wi-Fi and Bluetooth: These technologies use radio frequency electromagnetic
waves to transmit data wirelessly over short distances.
• Television and Radio Broadcasts: TV and radio signals are sent over the air using
radio waves, which are a type of electromagnetic signal.
• Microwave Transmission: Often used for point-to-point communication links,
microwave signals can travel through the atmosphere over long distances.

Basic Terminology
Introduction…..

Cycle Wave Characteristics

Analogue

Digital
Frequency Allocation and Regulation
• Frequency in cellular networks refers to the specific radio waves used
to transmit and receive signals between mobile devices (like phones)
and cell towers. Between mobile equipment and BTS or BSC or MSC
• Different cellular technologies (like 3G, 4G, and 5G) operate on
different frequency bands, allowing data to be sent and received
wirelessly between users and the network infrastructure (e.g., cell
towers).
• These frequencies are assigned in bands measured in megahertz
(MHz) or gigahertz (GHz), and each cellular network operator is
allocated specific frequency bands to minimize interference.
• Cellular networks operate in a range of frequency bands, typically
between 600 MHz and 5 GHz.

• Spectrum for Different Generations (2G, 3G, 4G, 5G):

• 2G and 3G: Typically operates between 850 MHz to 2100 MHz,
supporting basic mobile communication like voice and text.
Frequency Allocation and Regulation
• 4G LTE: Operates in a range from 600 MHz up to 3.5 GHz, with some
newer networks using frequencies up to 5 GHz.
• 5G: 5G networks operate on three main frequency bands: low-band,
mid-band, and high-band
• Low-Band 5G (below 1 GHz), Mid-Band 5G (1 GHz to 6 GHz), High-Band 5G

• Global Frequency Standardization: This spectrum management is

regulated by governments in most countries.
– Different countries have unique allocations often regulated by
national bodies like the FCC in the U.S. and the Ethiopian
Communications Authority (ECA) in Ethiopia, Ofcom in the U.K.
– International organizations like the ITU help harmonize frequency
bands globally, making devices and services compatible across
regions.
• Efficient use of frequency in cellular networks enables improved network
performance, better coverage, and higher data rates, meeting the growing
Frequency Allocation and Regulation

• These authorities are responsible for setting the rules and standards
for spectrum allocation and usage, as well as resolving conflicts and
disputes among spectrum users.

• However, the spectrum regulation and policy process is often slow,

complex, and rigid, and does not adapt well to the changing needs
and innovations of the wireless industry and society.

• Improving frequency spectrum allocation is essential for maximizing

efficient use of the radio spectrum, reducing interference, and
accommodating the growing demand for wireless services.
Frequency Allocation and Regulation
• Frequency allocation (or spectrum allocation) is the division of the
electromagnetic spectrum into radio frequency bands.
• Assigning specific frequency ranges within the radio spectrum to
various types of services or devices and monitoring it.

• The radio spectrum ranges from 3 Hz to 300 GHz and is divided into
various frequency bands, each suitable for different applications.

• Frequency bands are allocated for specific purposes like mobile

networks, broadcasting (TV and radio), satellite communications, Wi-
Fi, Bluetooth, radar, and emergency services.

• Depending our needs we have to subscribe from the RF service

providers.
Frequency Allocation and Regulation
What is wireless spectrum?
•Wireless spectrum refers to the range of electromagnetic frequencies that
can be used to transmit and receive signals wirelessly.
•The spectrum is divided into bands, each with different characteristics and
applications. For example,
•Lower frequency bands can travel farther and penetrate obstacles better, but
carry less data and are more crowded.
•Higher frequency bands can carry more data and support newer technologies,
but have shorter range and are more sensitive to interference.
Why is wireless spectrum allocation important?
– To determine how efficiently and effectively wireless communication can take
place.
– To enhance modulation techniques and security concerns, for better roaming
s.
– Different users and applications have different needs and preferences for
spectrum access, such as bandwidth, latency, reliability, and cost.
– However, the spectrum is a finite and shared resource, so there is a trade-off
between satisfying the demand and avoiding the congestion.
Methods for Improving frequency spectrum allocation
Spectrum sharing and access
•One of the potential solutions for making spectrum allocation more
equitable is to promote spectrum sharing and access among different
users and applications.
•Spectrum sharing means that multiple users can coexist or cooperate
in the same spectrum band, either by using different technologies, time
slots, or geographic areas or using codes. This can be done by FDMA,
TDMA, CDMA, WCDMA, OFDMA so on

•Spectrum access means that users can dynamically access unused or

underused spectrum bands, either by leasing, buying, or borrowing
them from other users or authorities similar to DFS features in APs.

•Spectrum sharing and access can increase the utilization and efficiency
of the spectrum, as well as create new opportunities and incentives for
wireless innovation and competition.
Methods for Improving frequency spectrum allocation
Spectrum valuation and pricing
•Another potential solution for making spectrum allocation more
impartial is to apply spectrum valuation and pricing mechanisms that
reflect the true value and cost of the spectrum.
•This method is similar to ISDN and DSL on Plain old telephone system.

•Spectrum valuation means that the spectrum is assessed based on its

economic, social, and environmental benefits and impacts, as well as its
scarcity and demand.
•Spectrum pricing means that the spectrum is charged or auctioned
based on its value and usage, as well as its externalities and opportunity
costs.
•Spectrum valuation and pricing can improve the allocation and
distribution of the spectrum, as well as encourage more efficient and
responsible spectrum use.
Methods for Improving frequency spectrum allocation
Spectrum monitoring and enforcement
•Another potential solution for making spectrum allocation more
equitable is to enhance spectrum monitoring and enforcement
capabilities that ensure compliance and accountability of the spectrum
users and authorities.
•Spectrum monitoring means that the spectrum is measured and
analyzed to detect and identify the spectrum usage and performance,
as well as the spectrum interference and violations.
•Spectrum enforcement means that the spectrum is protected and
secured to prevent and resolve the spectrum conflicts and problems, as
well as to impose sanctions and penalties for the spectrum misuse and
abuse.

•Spectrum monitoring and enforcement can improve the quality and

reliability of the spectrum, as well as deter and correct spectrum
misbehavior.
Methods for Improving frequency spectrum allocation
Spectrum Reallocation and Spectrum Refarming
•Regulators can periodically review and reassign spectrum bands based
on demand and technology evolution, moving frequencies from
underutilized or outdated applications to high-demand applications.
•Example: Moving frequencies from broadcast television to mobile
broadband networks

•Spectrum refarming reallocates spectrum from legacy technologies

(e.g., 2G) to newer and more efficient technologies (e.g., 4G or 5G).
•This maximizes the spectrum's utility by supporting higher data rates
and capacity.
•Example: Many operators have phased out 1G, 2G and 3G networks to
refarm those frequencies for 4G LTE or 5G services.
Methods for Improving frequency spectrum allocation
Ultra-Dense Network (UDN) Deployment during Cellular network
design/organization
•UDNs involve deploying many small cells, such as femtocells and
picocells, in high-density areas to increase capacity and spectrum reuse,
especially in urban areas.
•Example: Using small cells in densely populated city areas to reuse
frequency bands across smaller, localized areas without interference.

Carrier Aggregation or summarization

•Carrier aggregation combines multiple frequency bands (carriers),
allowing devices to access more bandwidth and thus improve speeds
and spectrum efficiency. They will use CDMA or WCDMA or OFDMA
•Example: 4G and 5G technologies use carrier aggregation to combine
bands and achieve faster data rates and better performance for users
by the operators.
•Vodafone(UK), SK telecom(south Korea), AT&T (US) use CA for users
Frequency Allocation and Regulation
• How is wireless spectrum allocation done?
• Wireless spectrum allocation is done by various authorities and
stakeholders at different levels.

• At the global level, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

coordinates the allocation of spectrum among countries and regions,
based on technical standards and international agreements.

• At the national level, governments or regulators assign spectrum

licenses or permits to specific users or operators, based on policy
objectives and market conditions.

• At the local level, users or operators manage their own spectrum

usage, based on their own needs and capabilities.
Frequency Allocation and Regulation
• How is wireless spectrum allocation done in Ethio Telecom?
• Ethio Telecom, which was the only telecommunications provider
until recently, manages wireless spectrum allocation primarily in
coordination with the Ethiopian Communications Authority (ECA).
• (ECA): has Regulatory Authority Role. The Ethiopian Communications
Authority is responsible for assigning and regulating radio
frequencies and spectrum management across the country.
• They issue guidelines and licenses to ensure that spectrum use aligns
with national policies and international regulations.
• Ethio Telecom has Spectrum Licensing and Allocation: Ethio Telecom
applies for spectrum licenses from the ECA, detailing specific
frequency bands needed for services like mobile, Wi-Fi, and LTE
networks.
• The ECA then allocates frequency bands, typically based on the ITU
recommendations, which assign different frequency ranges for
various services to minimize interference.
Frequency Allocation and Regulation
• How is wireless spectrum allocation done in Ethio Telecom?
• Ethio Telecom and (ECA) manage the whole spectrum allocation in
Ethiopia
Frequency Allocation and Regulation
• Frequency Planning: Ethio Telecom’s engineering teams plan
network frequency allocations to cover both urban and rural areas.
They carefully coordinate the use of various bands to optimize signal
quality and capacity.

• Spectrum Sharing and Reuse: Ethio Telecom may reuse frequencies

in non-overlapping geographical areas to optimize spectrum usage,
especially in densely populated zones.

• Licensing for Private and New Applicants: With the telecom market’s
liberalization, ECA has begun issuing spectrum licenses to new
entrants like SafariCom Ethiopia.
• This means Ethio Telecom and SafariCom Ethiopia now share
spectrum resources across designated bands, with specific
allocations to avoid overlap and interference based regulations
specified by ECA.
What are the challenges of wireless spectrum allocation?
•Wireless spectrum allocation is commonly challenged by spectrum
scarcity, spectrum interference, and spectrum regulation.
– Spectrum Scarcity
– Balancing Legacy and Emerging Services
– Cross-Border Spectrum Coordination
– Auction and Licensing Challenges
– Spectrum Sharing and Efficient Use the need for Dynamic
Spectrum Access and Unused Spectrum (White Spaces)
– Interference Management
– Growing Need for Higher Frequencies
– Inconsistent National Policies and Slow Regulatory Adaptation
• The regulation of wireless spectrum is influenced by a variety of factors,
creating uncertainty and complexity for users and operators who must abide
by different rules and standards across different jurisdictions.
Antenna Fundamentals
• An antenna converts electrical signals into electromagnetic waves (when
transmitting) and vice versa (when receiving).
• In transmission, an antenna takes an electrical signal from a transmitter and
emits it as radio waves into free space.
• For reception, it intercepts incoming electromagnetic waves and converts
them back into an electrical signal for the receiver.
• Electrical signals are currents or voltages that carry information (like voice
or data) over a physical medium, such as a wire or an antenna.
• Electrical signals travel well over conductive materials like copper wires,
UTP cables but they need an antenna to transition into wireless
transmission.
• Electromagnetic waves are waves of electric and magnetic fields that
propagate through space, carrying energy and information without the
need for a physical medium.
• Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light, with a wavelength and
frequency directly related to the original electrical signal.
• These waves allow wireless transmission of signals across distances, as they can move
through air, space, and other non-conductive environments.
Antenna Fundamentals
How does an antenna work
•The antenna is responsible for transmitting and receiving radio
frequency (RF) signals to and from mobile devices in its coverage area.
•Antennas serve as the interface between guided electromagnetic
waves in transmission lines and free-space propagating waves, playing a
vital role in transmitting and receiving information.

This antenna converts This antenna converts EM

electrical signals to EM signals to electrical signals
signals
 Antenna Fundamentals
• RF (Radio Frequency) propagation is the behavior of radio waves as
they travel through the air or other media from Tx to Rx.
• It describes how RF signals (electromagnetic waves within the radio
frequency spectrum, typically 3 kHz to 300 GHz) move from a
transmitter to a receiver.
Common RF propagation models used in mobile communications?
• RF propagation models are mathematical formulas or algorithms that
predict how radio signals travel through various environments.
• In antenna fundamentals, a model refers to a theoretical or physical
representation of an antenna's structure, behavior, and
characteristics.
• Models are essential tools in antenna design and analysis because
they help engineers to predict and understand how an antenna will
perform before it is built or before it is designed.
• Models can range from mathematical equations and simulations to
physical prototypes, each with specific purposes and applications.
Antenna Fundamentals
• There are too many examples of models such as
• Statistical Models: Used to analyze data and make predictions based on statistical methods.
• Physical Models: Tangible representations of a system, such as scale models of buildings,
bridges, or mechanical systems.
• Computational Models: Use algorithms and computer programs to simulate complex
systems, enabling the study of phenomena that are difficult to analyze mathematically.
• The main purpose is for creating representations of real-world systems to
analyze and predict their behavior under different conditions.
• Here are some Common RF propagation models used in mobile
communications?
1. Free space model
• The simplest RF propagation model is the free space model, which assumes
that there is no obstacle or interference between the transmitter and the
receiver.
• The free space model also accounts for the antenna gain, which is a measure
of how well an antenna can focus or capture RF signals.
• The free space model is useful for estimating the maximum range and
minimum power requirements of a wireless link in an ideal scenario.
Antenna Fundamentals
• Common RF propagation models used in mobile communications?
2. Path loss models
• The free space model is not very realistic, because in most cases
there are obstacles and interferences that affect the RF signals.

• For example, buildings, trees, hills, and other objects can block,
reflect, or scatter the RF waves, causing them to lose more power
than in free space.

• To account for these effects, engineers use path loss models, which
are empirical formulas that are derived from measurements and
experiments in specific environments.

• Path loss models can help you to estimate the average signal
strength and coverage area of a wireless network in a given
environment.
Antenna Fundamentals
3. Fading models
•Path loss models are still not very accurate, because they assume that the RF
signals have a constant attenuation over distance.
•However, in reality, the RF signals can vary randomly and rapidly due to small-
scale effects, such as multipath propagation, Doppler shift, and shadowing.
•Multipath propagation occurs when the RF waves bounce off different
surfaces and arrive at the receiver with different phases and amplitudes.
•
•Doppler shift occurs when the relative motion between the transmitter and
the receiver causes a change in the frequency of the RF waves.

•Shadowing occurs when the RF signals are temporarily blocked by large

obstacles, such as buildings or vehicles.
•These effects cause the RF signals to fluctuate in strength and quality, which is
called fading.
•Therefore Fading models can help you to evaluate the performance and
reliability of a wireless link in a dynamic scenario.
Antenna Fundamentals
4. Channel models
•The ultimate goal of RF propagation modeling is to characterize the
channel, which is the medium through which the RF signals travel from
the transmitter to the receiver.
•The channel can be described by various parameters, such as the path
loss, the fading, the delay, the coherence, and the correlation.
•The channel can also be represented by a transfer function, which
relates the input and output signals of the wireless link.
•Channel models can be either deterministic or stochastic.
•Deterministic channel models are based on physical principles and
geometrical information, such as the location, shape, and material of
the obstacles and reflectors.
•Stochastic channel models are based on random variables and
probability distributions, such as the fading and delay statistics.
•Channel models can help you to simulate and test the performance of
different wireless technologies and protocols in various scenarios.
Antenna Fundamentals
Model selection
•When selecting an RF propagation model, we need to consider our
objectives, requirements, and constraints.
•Some of the Factors for model selection are:-
• the frequency range and bandwidth of the RF signals,
• the type and configuration of the antennas,
• the distance and topology of the wireless link,
• the environment and topography of the wireless network,
• the availability and quality of the measurement data, and
• the complexity and computational cost of the model can all
influence our decision.

•By making an informed choice, we can improve our understanding of

RF propagation behavior and optimize your mobile communication
system in total.
Antenna Fundamentals
Antenna Parameters
•Some key parameters that describe its characteristics and behavior.
•Frequency, which determines the size, shape, and bandwidth of the
antenna, is the range of electromagnetic waves that the antenna can
operate at.
•Gain measures how well the antenna concentrates or focuses the
radiated power in a specific direction, usually expressed in decibels (dB)
relative to a reference antenna.
•Polarization is the orientation of the electric field component of the
electromagnetic wave and can be linear, circular, or elliptical.
•Radiation pattern is a graphical representation of the spatial
distribution of the radiated power in different directions, showing the
main lobe and side and back lobes.
•Impedance is the ratio of voltage to current at the antenna terminals
and depends on frequency, geometry, and environment; it should
match the impedance of the transmitter or receiver circuit to minimize
reflection and power loss.
Antenna Fundamentals
Antenna Selection Criteria
•When designing an RF system, we need to consider certain criteria for
our antenna selection process.
•These include the application, environment, and cost.
•For example, if we are designing a mobile phone, we need a compact
and lightweight antenna that can operate at multiple frequency bands.
•In an urban area, you must account for multipath propagation,
interference, and fading effects that can degrade signal quality.
•Additionally, the budget and resources available for your RF system will
limit your antenna options; you need to balance performance, quality,
and cost.
•A high-gain antenna could be a parabolic dish, a Yagi-Uda, or a phased
array antenna; however, each of these have various complexities,
efficiencies, and costs.
Antenna Fundamentals
Antenna Types
•Antennas are a key component in mobile communications, with many
types and categories available.
•The most common and widely used antennas include the dipole
antenna, monopole antenna, loop antenna, helical antenna, and patch
antenna.
•The dipole has a linear polarization and a bidirectional radiation
pattern with moderate gain and wide bandwidth.
•The monopole is a variation of the dipole with linear polarization,
unidirectional radiation pattern, higher gain, and narrower bandwidth.
•The loop has circular or elliptical polarization, bidirectional radiation
pattern, low gain, and narrow bandwidth.
•The helical antenna has circular or elliptical polarization, directional
radiation pattern, high gain, and moderate bandwidth.
•The patch has linear polarization, unidirectional radiation pattern,
moderate gain, and narrow bandwidth.
Fundamentals Multiplexing
What is Multiplexing?
•Multiplexing is the process of combining two or more signals into one signal
that can be transmitted over a single channel or medium.
•The channel or medium can be a wire, a fiber optic cable, a radio frequency,
or any other physical or logical path.
•The multiplexed signal is then demultiplexed at the receiver end, where the
original signals are separated and recovered.
•Multiplexing can increase the capacity and efficiency of a channel or medium,
as well as reduce the cost and complexity of the transmission system.
What is Multiple Access?
•Multiple access is the technique that allows multiple users or devices to
access the same channel or medium simultaneously or sequentially.
•Multiple access can be seen as a special case of multiplexing, where the
signals are not combined into one signal, but rather share the channel or
medium in a coordinated manner.
•Multiple access can enable communication among multiple users or devices,
as well as support network diversity and scalability.
Fundamentals of Multiplexing
• Types of Multiplexing and Multiple Access

• Multiplexing and multiple access come in a variety of forms,

depending on how the signals are divided and allocated over the
channel or medium.

• Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) and frequency division

multiple access (FDMA) assign different frequency bands to signals,
allowing them to be transmitted simultaneously without overlapping.

• Time division multiplexing (TDM) and time division multiple access

(TDMA) divide signals into time slots within the channel or medium,
enabling transmission sequentially without overlapping.
Fundamentals of Multiplexing
• Code division multiplexing (CDM) and code division multiple access
(CDMA) encode signals with different codes or sequences, allowing
them to be transmitted simultaneously over the same frequency
band within the channel or medium.
• Space division multiplexing (SDM) and space division multiple access
(SDMA) transmit signals over different spatial paths or beams within
the channel or medium, using directional antennas or multiple-input
multiple-output (MIMO) systems.

• All these techniques are widely used in:-

– Radio and television broadcasting,
– Digital telephony,
– satellite and cellular networks,
– Wireless local area networks (WLANs),
– Optical and wireless networks,
– Radar and sonar systems.
Wireless Sensor Network
• A WSN is a network of spatially distributed sensors that monitor physical or
environmental conditions, like temperature, humidity, pressure, or motion.
These sensors transmit data wirelessly to a central location, often through
multi-hop communication.
• Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages
and monitors the environment in a particular area.
• They are connected to the Base Station which acts as a processing unit in
the WSN System.
• Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet to share data.
• SN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.
• Applications of WSN:
• Internet of Things (IOT)
• Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat detection
• Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
• Noise Level of the surrounding
• Medical applications like patient monitoring
• Agriculture
• Landslide Detection
Wireless Sensor Network
• Challenges of WSN:
– Quality of Service
– Security Issue
– Energy Efficiency
– Network Throughput
– Performance
– Ability to cope with node failure
– Cross layer optimization.
– Scalability to large scale of deployment.
Wireless Sensor Network
Components of WSN:
[Link]: Sensors in WSN are used to capture the environmental
variables and which is used for data acquisition. Sensors are devices
that detect and measure physical properties in the environment.

2. Radio Nodes: It is used to receive the data produced by the

Sensors and sends it to the WLAN access point. It consists of a
microcontroller, transceiver, external memory, and power source.
RNs is the core components of a WSN, enabling communication
among the sensors & with a central control station or other networks.
3. WLAN Access Point: It receives the data which is sent by the Radio
nodes wirelessly, generally through the internet.
[Link] Software: The data received by the WLAN Access Point is
processed by a software called as Evaluation Software for presenting
the report to the users for further processing of the data which can
be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.
•NS-3 (Network Simulator 3), MATLAB and Simulink, NetSim, GNS3, Cisco Packet
tracer are some common examples of sw tools
The END of Chap 4