HUMAN

REPRODUCTION
CHAPTER 17
CONTENTS

• Gametogenesis
• Male Reproductive System
• Female Reproductive System
• Sexual Hormones
• Sexually Transmitted infections (STIs)
GAMETOGENESIS

• Humans are viviparous.- Sexually Reproducing

• The reproductive events in humans include formation of gametes (gametogenesis)
 sperms in males
 ovum in females
 transfer of sperms into the female genital tract (insemination)
 fusion of male and female gametes (fertilisation) leading to formation of zygote.
 These reproductive events occur after puberty. There are remarkable differences between
the reproductive events in the male and in the female, for example, sperm formation
continues even in old men, but formation of ovum ceases in women around the age of fifty
years.
FERTILIZATION
SPERMS EGGS
The penis is the male
external genitalia (Figure
3.1a, b). It is made up of
special tissue that helps in
erection of the penis to
facilitate insemination.

Secretions of the glands

constitute the seminal
plasma which is rich in
fructose, calcium and
certain enzymes

Each testis is oval in

shape, with a length of
about 4 to 5 cm and a
width of about 2 to 3
cm.

Scrotum: 2–2.5o C lower

than the normal internal
body temperature-
necessary for
spermatogenesis.
REVIEW
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
__________ Reproductive System ____________ Reproductive System
 WHAT IS FERTILISATION?

•Fertilisation is the fusion of the nuclei from a

male gamete (sperm cell) and a female
gamete (egg cell)
•It occurs in the oviducts
•Gametes have adaptations to increase the
chances of fertilisation and successful
development of an embryo
•The sperm enters the egg cell during
fertilisation
 PREGNANCY: GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT OF THE FETUS

• After fertilisation in the oviduct, the zygote travels towards the uterus
• This takes about 3 days, during which time the zygote will divide several
times to form a ball of cells known as an embryo

• In the uterus, the embryo embeds itself in the thick lining

(implantation) and continues to grow and develop
• The gestation period for humans is 9 months
• Major development of organs takes place within the first 12 weeks,
during which time the embryo gets nutrients from the mother by diffusion
through the uterus lining
• After this point the organs are all in place, the placenta has formed and
the embryo is now called a fetus
• The remaining gestation time is used by the fetus to grow bigger in size

• The fetus is surrounded by an amniotic sac which contains amniotic

fluid (made from the mother’s blood plasma)
• This protects the fetus during development by cushioning it from
bumps to the mother’s abdomen

• The umbilical cord joins the fetus’s blood supply to the placenta for
exchange of nutrients and removal of waste products
IMPLANTATION

• Stages leading to implantation:

1. Ovulation: A mature follicle bursts and releases an egg into the oviduct
2. Fertilization: A sperm nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus forming a zygote
3. The zygote divides
4. After several hours, a ball of cells is formed
5. The cells in the ball keep dividing as it moves down the oviduct. It is now
called an embryo
6. implantation the embryo sinks into the soft lining of the uterus
 THE PLACENTA & UMBILICAL CORD

• During the gestation period the fetus develops and grows by

gaining the glucose, amino acids, fats, water and oxygen it
needs from the mother’s blood
• The bloods run opposite each other, never mixing, in the placenta
• The fetus’s blood connects to and from the placenta by
the umbilical cord
• The mother’s blood also absorbs the waste from the fetus’s blood
in the placenta; substances like carbon dioxide and urea are
removed from the fetus’s blood so that they do not build up to
dangerous levels
• Movement of all molecules across the placenta occurs
by diffusion due to difference in concentration gradients
• The placenta is adapted for this diffusion by having a large surface
area and a thin wall for efficient diffusion
PLACENTA
 TOXINS AND PATHOGENS

• The placenta acts as a barrier to prevent toxins and pathogens getting

into the fetus’s blood
• Not all toxin molecules or pathogenic organisms (such as viruses,
eg rubella) are stopped from passing through the placenta (this usually
depends on the size of the molecule)
• This is why pregnant women are advised not to smoke during
pregnancy as molecules like nicotine can pass across the placenta
• After the baby has been born, the umbilical cord is cut – this does not
hurt as there are no nerves in it, just two blood vessels
• It is tied off to prevent bleeding and shrivels up and falls off after a few
days leaving the belly button behind
• The placenta detaches from the uterus wall shortly after birth and is
pushed out due to contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus – known
as the afterbirth
• Examiner Tips and Tricks
• It is worth learning at least two specific substances
that move in either direction across the placenta –
this is a common exam question and non-specific
answers such as ‘waste products’ and ‘nutrients’
will not get any marks!
 MENSTRUAL CYCLE

• Starts in early adolescence in girls (around age 12) and is

controlled by hormones
• The average menstrual cycle is 28 days long
• Ovulation (the release of an egg) occurs about halfway through
the cycle (day 14) and the egg then travels down the oviduct to
the uterus
• Failure to fertilise the egg causes menstruation ( commonly
called a period) to occur – this is caused by the breakdown of
the thickened lining of the uterus
• Menstruation lasts around 5 – 7 days and signals the beginning of
the next cycle
• After menstruation finishes, the lining of the uterus starts to
thicken again in preparation for possible implantation in the next
cycle
CHANGES IN THE LINING OF THE UTERUS
DURING THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
4 MAIN HORMONES INVOLVED

1. Oestrogen
2. Progesterone Menstruation is the first stage triggered by the drop
in progesterone
3. LH
4. FSH -
FSH- stimulates a follicle to mature in the
ovary
Oestrogen inhibits FSH and builds the uterus
lining
LH causes ovulation
Progesterone helps maintain the lining
• Menstruation: as the egg has not been fertilized, the thic uterus lining
is not needed. It breaks down and is gradually lost
• Inside the ovary, a follicle containing the egg cell develops. The uterus
lining is repaired
• Ovulation: the follicle bursts, releasing an egg cell from the ovary.
Fertilization could take place
• The follicle turns into a corpus luteum. The lining of the uterus
becomes more vascular, ready to receive the embryo
 4 PHASES OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
[Link] Phase

Hormones: Estrogen and Progesterone decrease

Effect: Menstruation occurs as the uterine lining sheds
2. Follicular Phase
Hormones: FSH stimulates follicles, leading to increased estrogen production
Effect: the uterine lining begins to thicken in preparation
3. Ovulatory Phase
Hormones: LH surges, triggering the release of an egg from the ovary
Effect: Ovulation occurs and the egg is available for fertilization
4. Luteal Phase:

Hormones: Progesterone increases, preparing the uterus for a possible

pregnancy
Effect: if fertilization doesn’t occur, estrogen and progesterone levels decline
leading to the start of menstruation
 • Oestrogen:
 Rise from day 1 Progesterone:
Remain low from day 1 to 14
 Peak before day 14 Peaks after ovulation
Causes uterine lining to thicken
 Causes uterine wall to start Prevent further ovulation if
thickening fertilization has occured

 Maturation of the egg

 Stimulate ovulation
LH:
Stimulates ovary to produce
FSH:
progesterone
Stimulates ovary to start releasing
Triggers ovulation
estrogen
Forms corpus luteum which produces
Stimulate the groth and development of
progesterone
ovarian follicles
Corpus luteum breaks if thee is no
fertilization
• Oestrogen levels rise from day 1
to peak just before day 14
• This causes the uterine wall to
start thickening and the egg to
mature
• The peak in oestrogen occurs just
before the egg is released
• Progesterone stays low from day
1 – 14 and starts to rise once
ovulation has occurred
• The increasing levels cause the
uterine lining to thicken
further; a fall in progesterone
levels causes the uterine lining to
break down (menstruation /
‘period’)
• FSH (Follicle Stimulating
Hormone) is released by
the pituitary and causes an egg
to start maturing in the ovary
• It also stimulates the ovary to
start releasing oestrogen
• The pituitary gland is
stimulated to release Luteinising
Hormone (LH)
when oestrogen levels have
reached their peak
• LH causes ovulation to
occur and also stimulates the
ovary to produce progesterone
 INTERACTION BETWEEN ALL FOUR OF THE MENSTRUAL
CYCLE HORMONES

• The pituitary gland produces FSH which stimulates the development of a follicle in the ovary
• An egg develops inside the follicle and the follicle produces the hormone oestrogen
• Oestrogen causes growth and repair of the lining of the uterus wall and inhibits production of FSH
• When oestrogen rises to a high enough level it stimulates the release of LH from the pituitary gland which
causes ovulation (usually around day 14 of the cycle)
• The follicle becomes the corpus luteum and starts producing progesterone
• Progesterone maintains the uterus lining (the thickness of the uterus wall)
• If the ovum is not fertilised, the corpus luteum breaks down and progesterone levels drop
• This causes menstruation, where the uterus lining breaks down and is removed through the vagina –
commonly known as having a period
• If pregnancy does occur the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone, preventing the uterus
lining from breaking down and aborting the pregnancy
• It does this until the placenta has developed, at which point it starts secreting progesterone and continues
to do so throughout the pregnancy