General methods in studying
constituents of crude drugs
◆ Extraction
◆ Isolation and purification of active
constituents
General Methods in
Studying Constituents of
Crude Drugs
Studying the constituents of
crude drugs is a complex and
multifaceted process.
Macroscopic Analysis
Physical Organoleptic Identification
Examination Testing
Evaluating the size, Assessing the taste, Comparing samples
shape, color, and smell, and to known standards
texture of crude appearance of the and reference
drug samples. drug material. materials.
Microscopic
Analysis
1 Cell Structure 2 Powder
Examining the cellular Characteristics
components and tissue Analyzing the
organization. morphology of powdered
drug samples.
3 Impurity Detection
Identifying any contaminants or adulterants present.
Chemical Analysis
Quantification Extraction Structural
Determining the concentration Isolating and purifying specific Elucidation
Identifying the chemical
of key active constituents. phytochemicals of interest. structure of unknown
compounds.
Analytical
Techniques
Chromatography
Separating and identifying compounds based on their physical
Mass Spectrometry
Analyzing the mass and fragmentation patterns of molecules to
and chemical properties. elucidate their structure.
1 2 3
Spectroscopy
Determining the molecular structure and composition using
electromagnetic radiation.
Biological Assays
In Vitro Assays
Cell-based and enzymatic tests to evaluate
pharmacological activities.
In Vivo Assays
Animal studies to assess the safety, efficacy, and
mechanism of action.
Clinical Trials
Human studies to validate the therapeutic potential
of crude drug extracts.
Extraction
Methods of Extraction
in Pharmacy
➔ Extraction techniques are fundamental in the
pharmaceutical industry, allowing the isolation and
purification of active ingredients from natural
sources
➔ Extraction is the initial step in obtaining the desired
natural products from crude materials.
Introduction to Extraction Techniques
Solid-Liquid Liquid-Liquid
Extraction Extraction
Separating compounds from a Partitioning compounds between
solid matrix using a liquid immiscible liquid phases.
solvent.
Extraction Methods
➔ The development of drugs relies heavily on natural products. For
the extraction and isolation of these bioactive natural products, it is
vital to develop efficient and effective extraction methods.
➔ Methods of Pharmaceutical Extraction:
◆ Maceration, Infusion, Digestion, Decoction, Percolation and
Soxhlet Hot Continuous Extraction
Maceration
➔ This process involves placing the coarsely
powdered crude drug with an adequate
amount of the solvent in a stoppered
container.
➔ It is then agitated frequently for at least 3
days at room temperature until its soluble
constituents dissolve.
➔ A filtration or decantation is performed after
a period of standing, and the liquids are
clarified by separating the marc (the damp
solid material).
Maceration
Principle Advantages
Soaking plant material in a Gentle extraction, suitable for
solvent to allow the gradual heat-sensitive compounds, and
diffusion of the target easy to scale up.
compounds.
Applications Limitations
Extraction of essential oils, Time-consuming, potential for
glycosides, and other microbial growth, and incomplete
phytochemicals. extraction.
Percolation
1 Packing
The plant material is packed into a percolator vessel.
2 Wetting
The solvent is slowly added to the top of the vessel, allowing it to
percolate through the plant material.
3 Extraction
The target compounds are dissolved and carried out of the vessel by
the solvent.
4 Collection
The extracted solution is collected at the bottom of the vessel.
Infusion
Using cold or boiling water, the
crude drug is macerated for a
short time to produce fresh
infusions. Water-soluble drugs
are diluted into these solutions.
Infusion
Simple Preparation Mild Extraction
Infusion involves steeping plant This technique is gentle and
material in hot water or another preserves the delicate components of
solvent. the plant.
Common Applications
Herbal teas, plant-based tinctures, and other traditional medicinal preparations.
Decoction
➔ This process involves boiling the raw
drugs for a fixed amount of time in a
certain volume of water.
➔ They are then cooled and filtered.
➔ A water-soluble, heat-stable
constituent can be extracted using
this method.
➔ The extract is then filtered and used
directly or processed further.
Decoction
Boiling
1 Plant material is boiled in water or
another solvent.
Simmering
2 The mixture is simmered to extract the
desired compounds.
Cooling
3 The decoction is cooled and strained to
obtain the final extract.
Soxhlet Extraction
➔ In this method, coarsely ground raw drugs are filled inside a porous bag
called a thimble. This is then put inside the chamber of the Soxhlet
apparatus
➔ The Menstruum is heated in the flask. The vapour evolved is then
passed through the condenser where it is condensed. This condensed
menstruum is then allowed to drip on the thimble which contains the raw
drug. Just by the contact of the extractant, the extraction is caused
➔ The liquid content in the chamber will syphon into the flask when the
level of the syphon tube reaches the top
➔ Continually, this process is carried out until a drop of solvent from the
syphon tube evaporates without leaving any residue
➔ With this method, a much smaller amount of solvent is needed to extract
large quantities of the drug, which gives it an advantage over previously
described methods
Soxhlet Extraction
Solvent Boiling
1
The solvent is boiled in a round-bottom flask.
Condensation
2 The solvent vapor condenses and drips onto the plant material in the extraction
chamber.
Siphoning
3 The extracted solution is siphoned back into the round-
bottom flask, and the cycle repeats.
Factors Affecting the Choice of Extraction Process
Nature of the Crude Drug
Stability of the Crude Drug
Cost of the Crude Drug
Solvent
Concentration of the Product
Recovery of Solvent
Factors Affecting the Choice of Extraction Process
Nature of the Crude Drug
➔ The choice to use maceration or percolation primarily depends upon the nature
and characteristics of the crude drugs to be extracted. Therefore, knowledge of
the type of organs and tissues of the plant matter is essential for achieving the
best result.
Stability of the Crude Drug
➔ Continuous hot extraction procedures should be avoided when constituents of the
drug are thermolabile.
Factors Affecting the Choice of Extraction Process
Cost of the Crude Drug
➔ When the crude drug is expensive (e.g. ginger), it is desirable to obtain complete
extraction. Therefore, from the economic point of view, percolation should be used. For
inexpensive drugs, maceration, despite its lower efficiency, is acceptable in view of its
lower cost.
Solvent
➔ Selection of the solvent depends on the solubility of the desired components of the
material. If the constituents demand a solvent other than a pure boiling solvent or an
azeotrope, continuous extraction should be used.
Factors Affecting the Choice of Extraction Process
Concentration of the Product
➔ Dilute products such as tinctures can be made by maceration or percolation.
For semi-concentrated preparations, the more efficient percolation process is
used. Concentrated preparations, such as liquid or dry extracts, are made by
percolation.
Recovery of Solvent
➔ Solvent is preferably recovered under reduced pressure to save thermolabile
constituents.