Small-scale Mobile radio propagation

 Small scale propagation implies signal quality

in a short distance or time range

 In this small range, fading or rapid fluctuation

of the signal amplitude is observed

 One cause of fading is multipath or the

process of signals reaching the receiver
through different mechanisms such as LOS,
reflection, diffraction and scattering.
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 Multipath effects
 Rapid changes in signal amplitude over a
small distance or time interval.

 Rapid changes in signal phaseover a small

distance or time interval.

 Time dispersion (echoes) caused by

multipath propagation delay.

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 Causes of fading
 In urban areas, fading occurs because the
height of mobile is lesser than the height of
surrounding structures, such as buildings
and trees.

 Existence of several propagation paths

between transmitter and receiver.

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 Factors influencing small signal fading

 Multipath propagations

 Speed of mobile (Doppler shift)

 Speed of surrounding objects

 Bandwidths of signal and channel

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 Analysis of multipath channel

Transmitter

Receiver
Spatial position

d
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 Convolution model for multipath signal

A2 x(t- t 2)
LOS
T , x(t)
R, y(t)
A1 x(t- t 1)

Received signal:

y(t) = A00 x(t) + A11 x(t - t 11) + A22 x(t - t 22) + ...
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 System definition of multipath

x(t) h(t) y(t)

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 Baseband signal definition
 Transmitted signal

c(t)- pulse

x(t) = c(t) cos (2  fct )

 Received signal

y(t) = r(t) cos (2  fct )

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 Base band equivalent channel

c(t) hb(t) r(t)

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 Modeling of the baseband multipath model

 Mathematical model
r(t) = c(t) * hbb(t, t)
hb(t,t)
t33
t22
t11
t00
to t1 t2 t N-2 t N-1
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 Excess delay concept
 The delay axis t, t oo<= t <= t n-1
n-1
is divided into
equal time delay segments called excess delay
bins.
t0 = 0
t1 =  t
t2 = 2  t

t N-1
N-1
= (N-1) t

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 Delay component design
 All multipath signals received within the
bins are represented by a single
resolvable multipath component having
delay t i .

 Design equation for bin width t:

Bandwidth of signal = 2/t

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 Final model for multipath response
N-1 j ii
r(t) =  aii e c[t –tii]
i = 0

 c(t) – Transmitted pulse

 r(t) – Received pulse

 N – Number of multipaths

 aii – Amplitude of multipath i

 qii – Phase of multipath i

 tii – Time delay of multipath i
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 Wideband multipath signals
N-1 j  ii
Received signal r(t) =  aii e p[t–tii]
i=0
Instantaneous received power:
N-1
|r(t)|22 =  |akk|22
k=0
=>Total received power = sum of the power of
individual multipath components.
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 Narrowband multipath signals

N-1 jii
Received signal: r(t) =  aii e p[t–tii]
i=0

Instantaneous received power:

N-1 ji
|r(t)|22 = |  ai e |22
i=0
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 Conclusions

 When the transmitted signal hasa wide bandwidth >>
bandwidth of the channel, multipath structure is
completely resolved by the receiver at any time and
the received power varies very little.


 When the transmitted signal has a very narrow
bandwidth (example the base band signal has a
duration greater than the excess delay of the channel)
then multipath is not resolved by the received signal
and large signal fluctuations occur (fading).

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 Example
Assume a discrete channel impulse response is used to
model urban radio channels with excess delays as large
as 100 s and microcellular channels with excess delays
not larger than 4 s. If the number of multipath bins is
fixed at 64 find:
(a) t
(b) Maximum bandwidth, which the two models can
accurately represent.

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 Solution
For urban radio channel

Maximum excess delay of channel

t NN = N t = 100  s.

N = 64
t = tNN /N = 100 s /64 = 1.5625 s

Maximum bandwidth represented accurately by model

= 2/ t = 1.28 MHz

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 For microcellular channel
Maximum excess delay of channel
t NN = N t = 4  s.

N = 64

t = t NN /N = 4  s /64 = 62.5 ns

Maximum bandwidth represented accurately by model =

2/ t = 32 MHz

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 Small-scale multipath measurements


 Direct Pulse Measurements

 Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Measurement

 Swept Frequency Measurement

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 Types of Small Scale Fading

Doppler Spread
Multipath time delay

Slow fading
Fast
Flat fading Frequency Fading
Selective
Fading

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 Mechanisms that cause fading
 2 main propagation mechanisms:


 Multipath time delay spread
 Doppler spread


 These two mechanisms are independent of

each other.

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 Multipath terms associated with fading

Ts = Symbol period or reciprocal bandwidth

Bs = Bandwidth of transmitted signal

Bc = Coherence bandwidth of channel

Bc= 1/(50)

where  is rms delay spread
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 Calculation of Delay Spread

__ _
 22 =  22 - ( )22

Where:
_
 = ( akk22 ) / ( akk22)
__
 22 = ( akk22 22) / ( akk22)
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 Fading effects due to Doppler spread
fc

V
fcc = frequency incident signal

Received signal spectrum = fc +/- fd

fd = Doppler shift
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 Doppler spread and coherence time

Doppler frequency shift : fdd = (v / ) cos  ,

Wavelength  = c / fcc

Maximum Frequency deviation = fmm = v / 

Doppler Spread BDD = fmm

Coherence time = Tcc = 0.423 / fmm

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 Mathematical estimation of fading
Flat fading
Most common type of fading

Spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal

are maintained at receiver
Condition:

Bs << Bc

=> Ts >> 
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 Frequency selective fading
 Due to time dispersion of transmitted
symbols within the channel
 Received signal undergoes distortion

 Condition:
Bs > B c

=> Ts < 

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 Flat fading or frequency selective fading?

Common rule of thumb


If Ts ≥ 10  => Flat fading

If Ts < 10  => Frequency selective fading

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 Fast fading channel
 The channel impulse response changes rapidly
within the symbol duration.
 This causes frequency dispersion due to
Doppler spreading, which leads to signal
distortion.
 Condition:

Ts > T c

Bs < B D
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 Slow fading channel
 The channel impulse response changes at a
much slower rate than the transmitted signal
 Velocity of mobile (or velocity of objects in
channel)
 Condition:

Ts < T c

Bs > B D

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 Rayleigh and Ricean distributions
 In mobile radio channels, the Rayleigh
distribution is commonly used to describe
the statistical time varying nature of the
received fading signal

 When there is a dominant (non-fading)

signal component present such as
LOS propagation path, the small scale
fading envelope distribution is Ricean

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 Level crossing and fading statistics
 Level crossing rate (LCR)
Rate at which the normalized Rayleigh fading
envelope crosses a specified level in a positive
going direction.
LCR = NRR = (2) fmm e-2

fmm = Maximum Doppler frequency

 = R/Rms
ms
= specified level R, normalized to the
rms value of fading signal
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 • Average fade duration
Average period of time for which the
received signal is below a specified level R.

__
Þ = e2– 1
________
________

fmm2

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 Example
(a) For a Rayleigh fading signal, compute the
positive going level crossing rate for  = 1, when
the maximum Doppler frequency, fm, is 20 Hz.
(b) What is the average fade duration?

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 Solution
=1
fm = 20 Hz
(a) Number of zero level crossings is:
NR = 2 (20) e-1
= 18.44 Crossings/Sec
Maximum velocity of mobile
= fd  = 20 (3 X 108)/(900X106)
= 6.66 m/s
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 (b) Average fade duration
__
Þ = e2– 1
________
________

fmm2

Þ= e1– 1
________
________ = 0.034 s
1x 202p

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 Statistical methods for fading channels

 Clark’s model for Flat Fading

 Two-Ray Rayleigh Fading Model
 Saleh and Valenzuela Indoor statistical Model
 SIRCIM (Simulation of Indoor Radio Channels
Impulse Response Models)
 SMRCIM (Simulation of Mobile Radio Channel
Impulse-Response Models)

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